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\\\t UNlVERi//i

MODERN PIANO TUNING

AND

ALLIED ARTS

INCLUDING

Principles and Practice of Piano Tuning, Regulation of
Piano Action, Repair of the Piano, Elementary Princi-
ples of Player-Piano Pneumatics, General Construction
of Player Mechanism, and Repair of Player Mechanism

WILLIAM BRAID WHITE

Technical Editor of the Music Trade Review. New York.
Author of "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Build-
ing." "The Player-Piano Up-to-date,"
and other works

WITH DRAWINGS. DIAGRAMS.
TA^ES. NOTES AND AN INDEX

NEW YORK
EDWARD LYMAN BILL, Incorporated

1917

Entered at Stationers' Hall

Murta

LfbrBxy

TO
THE CONFERENCE OF

AMERICAN PIANO TECHNICIANS

MEETING IN CHICAGO, U. S. A.

Whose valuable and exhaustive discussions

mark an epoch in the development of

American musical technology.

This Book
is, by one who has the honor of
membership in that Conference,

RESPECTFULLY AND AFFECTIONATELY
DEDICATED

'f^.

PREFATORY NOTE

In writing this book, I have tried to do two
things which are always thought to be admirable
but seldom thought to be conjunctible. I have
tried to set forth the theory of Equal Tempera-
ment in a manner at once correct and simple.
Simultaneously I have tried to construct and ex-
pound a method for the practical application of
that theory in practical tuning, equally correct,
equally simple and yet thoroughly practical.

The construction of the piano has not in this
volume been treated with minuteness of detail,
for this task I have already been able to perform
in a former treatise ; but in respect of the sound-
board, the strings, the hammers and the action,
the subject-matter has been set forth quite
elaborately, and some novel hypotheses have been
advanced, based on mature study, research and
experience. Here also, however, the theoretical
has been justified by the practical, and in no sense
have I yielded to the temptation to square facts
to theories,

111

iv Prefatory Note

In the practical matters of piano and player
repairing, I have presented in these pages the
results of nineteen years' practical and theoreti-
cal work, undertaken under a variety of condi-
tions and circumstances. In writing this part
of the volume I have had the inestimable advan-
tage of the suggestions and experiences of many
of the best American tuners, as these have been
gathered from past numbers of the Music Trade
Review, the Technical Department of which pa-
per I have had the honor to edit and conduct,
without intermission, for fourteen years.

The preliminary treatment of the Acoustical
basis of piano tuning may seem elaborate; but I
have tried to handle the subject-matter not only
accurately but also simply; and as briefly as its
nature permits. The need for really accurate in-
formation here justifies whatever elaboration of
treatment has been given.

I desire here to express my thanks to Mr. J. C.
Miller for permission to utilize some of his
valuable calculations, to Mr. Arthur Lund, E. E.,
for drawings of acoustical curves, and to my
brother, Mr. H. Sidney White, M. E., for dia-
grams of mechanical details.

Most books intended for the instruction and

Prefatory Note v

guidance of piano tuners have been either so
theoretical that their interest is academic purely;
or so superficial that accuracy in them is through-
out sacrificed. I have tried to avoid both er-
rors, and to provide both a scientifically correct
text-book for teaching and a pocket guide for
the daily study and use of the working tuner.
The program has been ambitious ; and I am con-
scious, now that the task is finished, how far
short of perfection it falls. But I think it fills
a want ; and I ask of all practitioners and students
of the noble art of tuning their indulgence to-
wards its faults and their approval of any vir-
tues it may appear to them to possess.

The writing of the volume began in the winter
of 1914 and was completed during the spring
of 1915. Various causes have operated, how-
ever, to retard its publication; notably the sud-
den passing of the honored man whose en-
couragement and kindness made possible the
publication of the other books which have ap-
peared over my name. It is however fortunate
that the successor of Colonel Bill, the corporation
which now bears his name and is carrying on so
successfully his fine work, has been equally de-
sirous with me, of pushing the book to publica-

vi Prefatory 'Note

tion. A thorough rereading of the manuscript,
however, during the interim, has suggested many
slight changes and a number of explanatory notes,
which have been incorporated with, or appended
to, the text.

A new, and I hope valuable, feature is the In-
dex, which I have tried to make copious and use-
ful, to the student and to the tuner alike.

William Braid White.
Chicago, 1917.

ERRATUM

Pade 300. For ^Sectional View of Doutle-valve
Action ' read ^Sectional View oi Smgle-valve

Action.

OMIT tke following words:

5a Secondary Poucli. r\ V

7a Secondary Reduced Pressure Chamber.

8a Secondary Valve.

11 Primary-Secondary Channel.

Contents

PAGE

Prefatory Note iii

Chapter I. Mechanics of the Musical

Scale ....'.. 1

On the Vibration of a Piano

String 36

Temperament .... 72

Chapter II.

Chapter
Chapter

III.
IV.

Chapter V.

Practical Tuning in Equal
Temperament .... 95

Mechanical Technique of
Tuning 114

Chapter

VI.

The Modern Piano .

130

Chapter

VII.

Sound-Board and Strings

152

Chapter VIII.

The Action and Its Regula-
tion

184

Chapter

IX.

The Hammer and Its Rela-
tion to Tone ....

223

Chapter

Repair of the Piano .

244

Chapter

XI.

Elementary Pneumatics

261

Contents

PAGE

Chapter XII. General Construction of

Player Mechanisms . . 284

Chapter XIII. Eepair of Player Mech-
anism 310

Bibliographical Note 329

Index 331

Chapter I.

MECHANICS OF THE MUSICAL. SCALE.

He who undertakes to master the art of piano
tuning must have some acquaintance, exact rather
than comprehensive, with that general body of
knowledge known as Acoustics. This term is used
to designate the Science of the phenomena known
as Sound. In other words, by the term Acoustics
we mean the body of facts, laws and rules which
has been brought together by those who have sys-
tematically observed Sound and have collected
their observations in some intelligible form.
Piano Tuning itself, as an Art, is merely one of
the branches of Practical Acoustics ; and in order
that the Branch should be understood it is neces-
sary to understand also the Trunk, and even the
Root.

But I might as well begin by saying that no-
body need be frightened by the above paragraph.
I am not proposing to make any excursions into
realms of thought too rarefied for the capacity of

the man who is likely to read this book. I sim-

2 Modern Piano Tuning.

ply ask that man to take my word for it that I
am going to be perfectly practical and intelligible,
and in fact shall probably make him conclude that
he has all along been a theorist without knowing
it; just as Moliere's M. Jourdain discovered that
he had been speaking prose all his life without
knowing it. The only difference has been that
my reader has not called it "theory." He has
called it ''knowing the business."

Anyhow, we are going to begin by discovering
something about Sound. We are in fact to make
a little excursion into the delectable kingdom of
Acoustics.

What is Sound? When a street-car runs over
a crossing where another line intersects, we are
conscious of a series of grinding crashes exceed-
ingly unpleasant to hear, which we attribute per-
haps to flat tires on the wheels or to uneven lay-
ing of the intersecting trackage. The most
prominent feature of such a series of noises is
their peculiarly grating and peculiarly spasmodic
character. They are on the one hand discontinu-
ous, choppy and fragmentary, and on the other
hand, grating, unpleasant to the hearing, and to-
tally lacking in any but an irritant effect. These
are the sort of sounds we speak of as ''noise."

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 3

In fact, lack of continuity, grating effect and gen-
eral fragmentariness are the distinguishing fea-
tures of noises, as distinguished from other
sounds.

If now we listen to a orchestra tuning up
roughly off-stage, the extraordinary medley of
sounds which results, may — and frequently does —
have the effect of one great noise; although we
know that each of the single sounds in the up-
roar is, by itself, musical. So it appears that
noises may be the result of the chance mixture
of many sounds not in themselves noises, but
which may happen to be thrown together without
system or order. Lack of order, in fact, marks
the first great distinction between noises and other
sounds.

If now we listen to the deep tone of a steamer's
siren, or of a locomotive whistle, we are conscious
of a different kind of sound. Here is the im-
mediate impression of something definite and con-
tinuous, something that has a form and shape of
its own, as it were, and that holds the same form
so long as its manifestation persists. If, in fact,
we continue to seek such sounds, we shall find that
what are called Musical Sounds are simply more
perfect examples of the continuity, the order and

4 Modern Piano Tuning.

the definite character which we noticed in the lo-
comotive whistle's sound. The more highly per-
fected the musical instrument, the more perfectly
will the sounds evoked by it possess the qualities
of continuity, order and definite form.

Continuity, persistence and definiteness, then,
are the features which distinguish Musical Sounds^
from Noises. And there are therefore only two
kinds of sounds: musical sounds and noises.

Now, what is Sound? The one way in which
we can know it, plainly, is by becoming conscious
of what we call the Sensation of Sound; that is,
by hearing it. If one considers the matter it be-
comes plain that without the ability to hear there
would be no Sound in the world. Sound cannot
exist except in so far as there previously exist
capacities for hearing it. The conditions that
produce Sound are obviously possible, as we shall
soon see, to an interminable extent in all direc-
tions ; yet what we may call the range of audible
Sound is very small indeed. We can hear so very
little of the conceivably bearable material; if I
may use so rough an expression.

So it becomes quite plain that Sound cannot be
considered as something in itself, existing in the
sounding body apart from us, but must rather be

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 5

thought of as the form in which we perceive some-
thing ; the form, in fact, in which we perceive the
behavior of certain bodies, which behavior could
not be perceived in any other way. Soun(i then
can be considered only from the view-point pf the
physical laws which govern the behavior of the
bodies in question. The laws which govern that
sort of behavior which we perceive as Sound,
alone form the subject of Acoustics. Why we
should experience these perceptio||^ as Sound
rather than as Light or Heat is m>t a, question
to be decided by/ Acoustics ; is nof a j^oblem of
the natural sciences, but of Metaphysics.

Limited th^efore to a strictly mechanical in-
vestigation, let us consider the production of
Sound from this view-gpf6int. Suppose that I
strike a tuning-fork aga*nst the knee and hold it
to the ear. I am conscious of a sound only mod-
erate in intensity but of persistent and quite defi-
nite character, agreeable, and what we call ** musi-
cal." No one has any hesitation in calling this
a "musical sound." But what produces it, physi-
cally speaking? We can discover this for our-
selves by making a simple experiment.

By lightly touching the prongs of the fork while
it is sounding I discover them to be in a state of

6 Modern Piano Tuning.

vibration. If I examine them under a micro-
scope I shall perhaps be able to detect an exceed-
ingly rapid vibratory motion. In order however
to make sure of the existence of these unseen vi-
brations, it is only necessary to obtain a sheet of
glass and smoke one surface of it by passing it
over the flame of a candle. Then let a tuning
fork be fitted with a very light needle point stuck
on the end of one prong with a bit of wax, in such

Figure 1.

a position that if the sheet of glass be placed
parallel with the length of the fork, the needle
point will be at right angles to both.

Now set the fork to sounding, and hold it so
that the needle point lightly touches the smoked
surface. Have a second person then move the
sheet of glass lengthwise while the fork is held
still. At once the needle-point will trace out a
continuous wavy line, each wave being of that pe-
culiar symmetrical form known technically as a

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 7

curve of sines or sinusoidal curve. By adjusting
the experimental apparatus with sufficient exact-
ness it would be possible to find out how many
of these little waves are being traced out in any
given time. Each of these waves corresponds to
one vibration or pendulum-like back and forth mo-
tion of the fork. By examining the wavy line with
close attention, we shall see that if the motion of
the glass sheet has been uniform, each sinusoid
is identical in size with all the others, which in-
dicates that the vibrations are periodic, that is to
say, recur at regular intervals and are of similar
width or amplitude.

We may therefore conclude from this one ex-
periment that the physical producer of musical
sound is the excitation of the sounding body into
periodic vibrations.

Listen to the noise of the macliinery in a saw
mill. When the circular saw starts to bite at a
piece of wood you hear a series of grating cracks,
which almost instantly assume the character of a
complete definite musical sound, though rough in
character. As the saw bites deeper into the wood
the sound becomes first lower, then higher, until
it mounts into a regular song. As the saw comes
out through the wood the sounds mount quite high

8 Modern Piano Tuning.

and then instantly die away. What is the cause
of this phenomenon?

The circular saw is a steel wheel with a large
number of teeth cut in its circumference. Sup-
pose there are fifty such teeth. At each revolu-
tion of the wheel, then, each tooth will bite the
wood once. If the wheel revolves at the rate of
say four revolutions per second, it follows that
there will be four times fifty or two hundred bites
at the wood in this time. That means that the
wood will receive two hundred separate scrapes
per second. Hence, the rotation of the wheel will
be slightly interrupted that number of times in
one second. Hence, again, the surface of the air
around the wheel will be vibrated back and forth
just as many times, because the entry and emer-
gence of each tooth will cause an alternate com-
pression and suction on the air around it. Try
another experiment. Stand five boys up in a row
one behind the other, so that each boy has his out-
stretched hands upon the shoulders of the boy in
front of him. Push the last boy. He falls for-
ward, pushes the next and regains his position.
Next falls forward, pushes Third and regains his
position. Third falls forward, pushes Fourth and
regains his position. Fourth falls forward,

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 9

pushes Fifth and regains his position. Fifth has
no one in front of him and so falls forward with-
out being able to regain his position. In this way
we illustrate the compression and rarefaction of
the air by the alternate fallings forward and re-
gainings of position undertaken by the boys. The
air is even more elastic than the boys and so forms
these waves of motion which we saw traced out
by the stylus on the tuning fork.

Now, it is plain that as the rotation of the cir-
cular saw increases in speed the pulses become suf-
ficiently rapid to fuse into one continuous musical
sound. If the saw were rotated at irregular, con-
stantly shifting speed, the separate shocks would
not coalesce and we should have merely the sen-
sation of a discontinuous, fragmentary, grating
series of shocks which we should call a noise.
Thus again we see that regularly recurring mo-
tions of the sounding body are requisite to pro-
duce musical sounds.

Transmission of Sound. But the illustration of
the five boys (which is due to the late Professor
Tyndall, by the way) shows something further.
It shows first how the excitation of a body into
vibration at regular intervals produces an effect
upon the immediately surrounding air, causing it

Modern Piano Timing.

in turn to oscillate back and forth in pulses of
alternate compression and rarefaction. But it
shows more. It shows that the sound-motion, as
we may call it, is transmitted any distance through
the air just as the shock started at one end of
the row of boys is felt at the other end, although
each boy moves only a little and at once recovers

Figure 2.

his position. So also each particle of air
merely receives its little push or compres-
sion from the one motion of the tuning-fork
or string, and transmits this to the next one.
At the backward swing of the tuning-fork or string
the air particle drops back to fill up the partial
vacuum it left in its forward motion, whilst the
motion transmitted to the second particle goes on
to the third and to the fourth and so on to the ear
of the hearer. Yet each particle has merely os-
cillated slightly back and forth.
Now, this mode of transmission evidently de-

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 11

pends upon the existence of an atmosphere. In
fact, we can soon show that, apart from all ques-
tion of ears, Sound could not exist for us, as we
are in this state of existence, without an atmos-
phere. Let an alarm-clock be set to ringing and
then placed under the glass bell of an air-pump.
We now begin to displace the air therefrom by
working the handle of the pump. As the quantity
of air inside the bell thus becomes smaller and
smaller, the sound of the alarm-clock's ringing
becomes fainter and fainter, until, where the air
is at a certain point of rarefaction, it entirely
disappears; although the clapper of the alarm
will still be seen working. In other words, there
must be an atmosphere or other similar medium,
like water, for transmission of the sound-motion
from the excited body to the ear.

Properties of Musical Sounds. Having arrived
at this point, we are now in a position to discuss
musical sounds in general and to discover the
laws that govern their behavior. The first prin-
ciple we shall lay down is that musical Sounds are
distinguished from noises by the continuity of
their sensation ; or in other words, musical sounds
are evoked by periodic vibrations. It is thus pos-
sible to measure the frequency of vibration that

12 Modern Piano Tuning.

evokes a sound of some given Leight; in other
words to determine its pitch.

It is also possible, as we shall see, to determine
a second quality of musical sounds ; namely, their
relative loudness or softness, or, as we shall call
it, their intensity.

Lastly, we can discover differences in character
or quality between musical sounds, and we shall
see also that it is possible to measure these dif-
ferences accurately.

Loudness. Let us begin with the second qual-
ity mentioned; that of loudness or intensity. If
a tuning-fork be excited by means of a violin bow
and then examined through a microscope while
its motion persists, it will be observed that as the
sound dies away, the amplitude or width of swing
of the prongs is becoming less and less, until the
cessation of motion and of the sound occur to-
gether. If, whilst the sound is thus dying away,
the fork is again bowed, the amplitude of the
prong's motion again is seen to increase just as
the sound increases. In fact, it has been found
by authoritative experiments that not only does
the loudness of a sound vary with the amplitude
of the vibrations of the sounding body; but ex-
actly as the square of the amplitude. For in-

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 13

stance, if a piano string can be made to vibrate so
that the width of swing in its motion is one-fif-
tieth of an inch, and if another piano string giv-
ing the same pitch can be made to vibrate with
an amplitude of one twenty-fifth of an inch, then
the second will have an amplitude twice that of
the first and its sound will be four times as loud.

However, let it be remarked that the mechanical
operations thus described do not necessarily cor-
respond with what we actually seem to hear. In
other words, the sensation of loudness and the
mechanical cause thereof do not always agree, for
the reason that we do not hear some musical
sounds as well as others. For instance, it is well
known that low sounds never seem as loud as high
sounds, even though the amplitude of vibration in
each case be the same. A low sound always
sounds softer than it really should be, to use a
rough expression, and a high sound louder than
it really should be.

There is only one more important point about
sound-intensity, namely, that the loudness of a
sound varies inversely as the square of the dis-
tance of the sounding body from the hearer.
Thus, other things being equal, a sound heard at
a distance of fifty feet should be four times as

14 Modern Piano Tuning.

loud as one heard at a distance of twice fifty, or
one hundred feet. However, it must also be re-
membered that the situation of the sounding body
and of the hearer in proximity to other objects,
has a modifying effect upon the loudness of sound
as perceived. In fact, we shall see that this is
only part of the truth expressed in the term "res-
onance," about which we shall have something to
say later on.

Pitch. Without making any special attempt at
producing an ideal definition of "pitch," it will be
enough to call it the relative acuteness or gravity
of a musical sound. Everybody knows what is
meant by saying that a musical sound is liigh or
low. The province of Acoustics lies in finding
some measuring-rule, some standard, whereby we
can measure this lowness or highness of a sound
and place it accurately in relation to all others.
The whole system of music is built upon simply
a measure of pitch, as we shall see.

Now, first of all, let us find out what it is that
makes a sound high or low. In other words, what
is the mechanical reason for a sound producing a
sensation of highness or lowness?

Musical sounds are produced through the pe-
riodic continuous vibration of some body. In the

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 15

experiment of the circular saw, to which I di-
rected attention some pages back, it was pointed
out that as the speed of the saw increases, so
the musical sound produced through its contact
with the wood rises in height. This may be veri-
fied by any number of experiments that one
chooses to make, and the net result is the fact
that the pitch of musical sounds depends upon the
number of vibrations in a given unit of time per-
formed by the sounding body. Let us put it in a
formula, thus:

The pitch of a musical sound varies directly
as the number of vibrations per unit of time per-
formed by the sounding body: the greater the
number of vibrations, the higher the pitch.

Unit of Time. It is customary to assign the
second as the unit of time in measuring frequency
of vibrations, and in future we shall use this al-
ways. If, therefore, we speak of a certain pitch
as, say, 500, we shall mean 500 vibrations per
second.

Double Vibrations. In counting vibrations, we
understand that a motion to and fro constitutes
one complete vibration. A motion to or fro would
be merely a semi-vibration or oscillation. In the
United States and England it is customary to im-

16 Modern Piano Tuning.

ply a double vibration (to and fro) when speak-
ing of a ''vibration." In France the single or
semi-vibration is the unit of measurement, so that
the figures of pitch are always just double what
they are as reckoned in the English or American
style.

Range of Audibility. It is found as the result
of experiment that the human sense of hearing is
distinctly limited. The lowest tone that can be
distinctly heard as a musical sound is probably the
lowest A (A-i) of the piano which, at the stand-
ard international pitch, has a frequency of 27.1875
vibrations per second. Sounds of still lower fre-
quency may perhaps be audible, but this is doubt-
ful, except in the cases of persons specially trained
and with special facilities. In fact, any spe-
cific musical sounds lower than this probably do
not exist for human beings, and when supposed to
be heard, are in reality not such sounds at all, but
upper partials thereof.^ The 64-foot organ pipe,
which has occasionally been used, nominally real-
izes tones lower than 27 vibrations per second, but
these are certainly not audible as specific separate
sounds. They can and do serve perhaps as a bass
to reinforce the upper partials of the pipe or the

1 See Chapter II,

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 17

upper tones of a chord; but they do not appear
as separate sounds, simply because the ear does
not realize their pulses as a continuous sensation,
but separates them. In fact, we may feel safe
in concluding that the lowest A of the piano is the
lowest of musical sounds generally audible. This
statement is made in face of the fact that the
sound evoked by the piano string of this note is
usually powerful and full. This only means, how-
ever, that the sound we hear on the piano is not
the pure fundamental vibration of 27.1875 vibra-
tions per second, but a mixture of upper partials
re-inforced by the fundamental. Of these par-
tials we shall have to speak later, for they are of
vital importance to the due consideration of our
subject-matter.^

A similar limitation confronts us when we come
to the highest tones audible by the human ear.
Plere again there is considerable diversity of
opinion as well as of experience. The highest
note of the piano, C7, has a frequency of 4,138.44
vibrations per second at the international pitch. -.J^
However, there is no special difficulty in hear-

1 For a very interesting discussion of the whole question of
deepest tones, I refer the reader to Helmholtz, "Sensations of
Tone," third English edition. Chapter IX.

18 Modern Piano Tuning.

ing sounds as much as two octaves higher, or up
to 16,554 vibrations per second. Above this limit,
comparatively few people can hear anything, al-
though musicians and acousticians have been able
to go much higher.^

The Musical Range. The limits of audibiUty
therefore embrace eleven octaves of sounds, but
the musical range is considerably smaller. The
modern piano embraces virtually the complete
compass of sounds used in music, and, as we all
know, that range is seven octaves and a minor
third, from A-i to C7.

Let it be noted that if the range of bearable
sounds lies between, say 27 and 32,000 vibrations
per second, the number of possible distinct musi-
cal sounds is enormous. We know that it is quite
possible for the trained ear to discriminate be-
tween sounds which, at the lower end of the gamut
anyhow, are no more than 4 vibrations per second
apart. For many years the late Dr. Rudolph
Koenig of Paris, one of the most gifted acousti-

1 Many years ago, before I had become practically interested in
Acoustics, and when my ear therefore was in every sense untrained,
I was tested by the Galton whistle up to 24,000 vibrations per
second, which is near G^, two and one-half octaves above the
piano's hif^hest note. This is well up to the higher limit of most
trained ears, although some acousticians have tuned forks run-
ning up to Cjo, with 33,108 vibrations per second.

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 19

cians the world has ever known, was engaged in
the construction of a so-called Universal Tono-
meter, consisting of a superb set of one hundred
and fifty tuning forks, ranging in frequency from
16 to 21,845.3 vibrations per second. In this re-
markable instrument of precision, the lowest
sounds differ from each other by one-half a vi-
bration per second, while within the musical com-
pass the difference never exceeds four vibrations.
It can readily be seen therefore that the number
of possible musical sounds is very much greater
than the eighty-eight which comprise the musical
gamut of the piano.

Just how the musical scale, as we know it, came
to be what it is, I cannot discuss here; for the
simple reason that the whole question is really to
one side of our purpose.^ Whatever may be the
origin of musical scales, however, we know that the
diatonic scale has existed since the twelfth cen-
tury, although the foundation of what we call mod-
ern music, employing the chromatic tempered

1 The claims made for the eleventh century monk, Guide
d'Arezzo, have been disputed, and the reader who is interested in
the historical aspect of the subject is referred to Grove's "Dic-
tionary of Music and Musicians," to Helraholtz' "Sensations of
Tone," and to A. J. Ellis' "History of Musical Pitch," quoted in
Appendix 20 of his translation of Helmholtz (3rd edition).

20 Modern Piano Tuning.

scale, was rightly laid only by Sebastian Bach, who
died 1750. Music is a young, an infantile, art, as
time goes.

The Diatonic Scale. We have already seen
that the musical tone is a fixed quantity, as it
were, being the sensation that is produced or
evoked by a definite number of vibrations in a
given time. This being the case, it becomes evi-
dent that all possible tones must bear mathemati-
cal relations to each other. As long ago as the
sixth century b. c. the Greek philosopher and
scientific investigator Pythagoras propounded the
notion that the agreeableness of tones when used
with each other is in proportion to the simplicity
of their mathematical relations. Now, if we look
at the scale we use to-day we find that although
the relations of the successive members of it
to each other appear to be complex, yet in fact
these are really most simple. Let us see how
this is :

Unison. We all know that we can recognize one
single tone and remember it when we hear it a
second time. If now we draw the same tone from
two sources and sound the two tones together, we
find that they blend perfectly and that we have
what we call a Unison. If we were to designate

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 21

the first tone by the mathematical symbol 1, we
should say that the Unison is equivalent to the
proportion 1 : 1. This is the simplest of rela-
tions ; but it is so because it is a relation between
two of the same tone, not between two different
tones.

Octave. We all recognize also the interval
which we call the octave and we know that in
reality two sounds an octave apart are identical,
except that they exist on different planes or levels.
So, if we play the sound C and then evoke the C
which lies an octave above, we find that we have
two sounds that actually blend into one and are
virtually one. When we come to discover the re-
lations between two sounds at the octave inter-
val, we find that the higher sound is produced by
just twice as many vibrations in a given time as
suffice to produce the lower sound, and so we can
express this octave relation mathematically by the
symbol 1 : 2. This is a relation really as simple
as that of the Unison, for in reality the Octave to
a given tone is simply a Unison with one member
thereof on a higher or lower plane.

Perfect Fifth. The relation next in simplicity
should naturally give us the next closest tone-re-
lation. And we find that the ear at once accepts

22 Modern Piano Tuning.

as the next closest relation what is called the
Fifth. If one strikes simultaneously the keys
C — G upwards on the piano one observes that they
blend together almost as perfectly as the tones
C — C or G — G, or any other octave or unison.
The Interval or relation thus sounded is called a
Perfect Fifth. When we come to trace up its
acoustical relations we find that a tone a Fifth
above any other tone is produced by just one and
a half times as many vibrations in a given time
as suffice to produce the lower tone. Thus we can
place the mathematical relation of the interval of
a Perfect Fifth as 1 : IH, or better still, for the
sake of simplicity, as 2 : 3, which is the same thing.
So we now have the simplest relation that can ex-
ist between different tones; the relation of the Per-
fect Fifth or 2:3. This important fact will lead
to essential results, as we shall see.

The Natural Scale. This interval, the Fifth,
will be found competent to furnish us with the en-
tire scale which the musical feeling and intuition
of men have caused them, throughout the entire
Western World at least, to accept as the basis of
music and of musical instruments ; that is to say,
the diatonic scale. If we begin with the tone C at

Mechanics of the Musical Scale.

any part of the compass and take a series of Fifths
upwards we shall arrive at the following scale :

C G D

E B F sharp.

JSl

"ST

D A

Figure 3,

F SHARP

These tones of course are spread over a compass
of five octaves, but if they are drawn together into
the compass of one octave, as they may rightly be
drawn (see supra ''The Octave") then we shall
have a scale like this :

C D E F sharp GAB

Now the F sharp in the present case is not ac-
tually used, but instead we have F natural, which
in fact is drawn from the interval of a Perfect
Fifth below the key-tone C. The reason for this
preference of F natural over F sharp lies in the

24 Modern Piano Tuning.

fact that the diatonic scale is thereby given a cer-
tain symmetry of sound which otherwise it would
lack and because the work of practical musical
composition is advantaged by the substitution/

The Diatonic Scale. We have arrived now at
the Diatonic Major Scale and although we need
not here be concerned with the origin thereof, we
may be satisfied to know that it appears to sat-
isfy the musical needs of civilized mankind. Let
us again examine the series of tones, this time
including the octave to C, whereby we in reality
complete the circle of Fifths, as it may be called,
and return to the key-tone, for the octave is the
same for musical purposes as the Unison. We
have then, counting upwards,

CDEFGABC

which we can readily identify as the series of
seven white keys on the piano ; with the eighth fol-
lowing and beginning a new series or scale. The
complete diatonic scale, when founded on the tone
C, may thus be seen, merely by looking at the
piano, to consist of a series of such scales, seven

1 For a general discussion of these reasons consult Goetschius'
"Theory and Practice of Tone-Relations."

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 25

in all, following one another from one end of the
piano to the other.^

Relations. Now, if we go a step further and
discover the relations which these tones hold to
each other mathematically, when brought together
into one octave, we find them to be as follows, ex-
pressing the lower C as 1 and the upper C as
2, and counting upwards always:

CDEFGABC

1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 ,15/8 2

Or in other words, the relation C to D is the same
as the ratio 8 to 9. The relation C to E is like-
wise 4 to 5. The relation C to F is 3 to 4, C to
G is 2 to 3, C to A is 3 to 5, C to B is 8 to 15 and C
to its octave is 1 to 2.

Tones and Semitones. Now if we glance at the
C scale as shown on the white keys of the piano
we shall see that it exhibits some interesting pe-
culiarities. Between each pair of white keys, such
as C — D or D — E, is a black key, which most people
know is called a sharp or a flat. But between
E — F and B — C is no space whatever, these pairs
of white keys being immediately adjacent to each

1 Note, however, that the modern piano contains three tones
lower than tlie lowest C, making a minor third more of compass.

26 Modern Piano Tuning.

other. If we run over the keys to sound them we
shall find that the sound-interval between E — F
or B — C can at once be heard as being closer or
narrower, as it were, than the sound-interval be-
tween A— B or C— D or D— E, or F— G or G— A
or A — B. The longer intervals, between which
we find the black keys, are called Diatonic Whole
Tones, and the shorter intervals E — F and B — C
are called Diatonic Semitones.

Diatonic Relationships. The exact relations
subsisting between the steps or degrees of the
Diatonic Scale can be ascertained by dividing the
ratios previously had, by each other, pair to pair.
Consulting the table previously given {page 25)
showing the relations of the steps to their key-
tone, we find that when the ratios are divided pair
by pair we get the following relations between
each pair of notes :

C D....E..F G....A B..C,

8:9 9:10 15:16 8:9 9:10 8:9 15:16

Now the first thing that will be observed is that
there are three intei'vals here, not two. There
are in fact, evidently two kinds of whole-step or
whole-tone. For it is evident that the sound-dis-
tance between C and D is more than the sound-

■i.4 5

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 27

distance between D and E. In actual fact, these
two whole-steps must be recognized as distinct.
This, however, brings about an entirely new con-
dition and one quite unsuspected. For inasmuch
as the Diatonic Scale must of course always re-
tain the same relationships among its successive
steps, it is evident that this idea of two ditferent
kinds of whole-step must land us in difficulties.

The trouble is that we cannot always play in the
key of C, by which I mean that sometimes, in fact
very often, we desire to build our music upon Dia-
tonic Scales which are founded upon other tones
than C. From the point of view towards which I
am leading — namely, that of tuning — we see here a
serious difficulty, for it is at once evident that if
we undertake to tune a Diatonic Scale, as sug-
gested some time back, by considering it as a
series of Perfect Fifths, we shall find ourselves in
deep water as soon as we quit the key of C. Let
me make this plainer.

Understand first of all that we have as yet
talked only of a scale founded on C and therefore
including what are known simply as the white keys
or natural notes. Suppose we begin by tuning a
series of fifths quite perfect from some given C,
say for the sake of convenience a C of which the

Modern Piano Tuning.

pitcli is 64 vibrations per second. This is a little
less than the pitch of C would be at the Interna-
tional standard but is more convenient for pur-
poses of calculation.

Then we should get a result like this:

-o-

F42.66

C64-

G96 DI44 AEI6

Figure 4.

E324 B486

Now, let us reduce this down to one octave, by
transferring the higher tones down, through the
simple process of dividing by 2 for each octave
of transference down and multiplying by 2 for
each octave of transference up. This will give us
the folloAving result:

F42.66 C 64.

G96 DI44 A 216

Figure 5.

E324

^ n O

-2> ^^. -^ .-'"''-'''

n73^ ro,-'^' ''85.31'- ^.G96 AI08 / BI2I.5

w\*

.- ^ ^- '-' ~

/•

■jf /

(m ^

-•

r,^

M-' iT)

jr-

tf ^^^

B486

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 29

Gathering this together, we have the following
scale founded on C = 128, or in acoustical nota-
tion Co = 128.1

128

144

162

170.66

192

216

243

256

Now, suppose we want to play a tune based on
another key-tone than C. Suppose, for instance,
that we want to use D 144 as the basis of a scale ;
that is to say, we want to play in the key of D,
as we say. The first thing to do is to find out
whether we have notes tuned already which will
give us such a scale. Going on the same plan as
the pattern Diatonic Scale of C, and applying it
to D, we find that we need the following notes :

D E F# G A B C# D.

All of these we already have except F# and C#.
We can get F# by tuning a perfect Fifth above B
243, which will give us FjJ 364.5. Dropping this an

1 Acoustical notation is as follows: Lowest C on the piano is
ca:lled C. The second C is C„ the third is Cj, middle C is C3 and
so on up to the highest note on the piano, which is C,. The notes
between the various C'a are called by the number of the C below.
Thus, all notes in the middle C octave, between C, and C^ are
called D3, E3, F3, etc., up to C^, when they begin again D^, E4,
etc., up to C5. This is the modern notation and I shall use it
exclusively.

30 Modern Piano Tuning.

octave we have F# 182.25. C# is a Perfect Fifth
above F# and so will be 546.75, or, dropping an
octave, 273.375. Now, we can construct a scale of
D as follows, beginning with the D 144 that we al-
ready have, using all the other notes already pro-
vided and the two new ones besides. That gives
ust

F#2

C#3

144

162

182.25

192

216

243

273.375

288

If you will look at it closely you will see that
there must be something wrong. The distance be-
tween F# and G seems small, and so does the dis-
tance between C# and D. To test the thing, let
us now construct a diatonic scale on the ratios we
know to be correct ^ and see what results we get.
It works out as follows :

D2 E^ F#2 G2 A, B, C#3 I>3

144 162 180 192 216 240 270 288

Ratios

8:9 9:10 15:16 8:9 9:10 8:9 15:16

Now, just for purposes of comparison, let us
put these two scales together, one below the other.
They look like this :

1 See pa{2^e 25 et seq.

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 31

SCALE MADE UP FROM C SCALE AND PEBFECT FIFTHS TUNED THERE-
FROM

144

162

182.25

192

216

243

273.375

288

SCALE MADE UP FROM KNOWN DIATONIC RATIOS

144 162 180 192 216 2JfO 210 288

At once it can be seen that the F# and the
C# which we manufactured by the perfectly
legitimate method of tuning perfect Fifths from
the nearest tone available in the scale of C, are
both wrong when secured in this way. Also, it
can be seen that the B which belongs to the scale
of C will not do for the scale of D. Not only is
this so, but if the experiment is made with other
key-tones, it will be found that they all, except the
scale of G, differ somewhere and to a greater or
less extent from the scale of C, even with reference
to the notes which they have in common with C

True Intonation. It is evident, therefore, that
no method of building up diatonic scales by tuning
pure intervals, will do for us if we are going to
use the same keys and the same strings for all
the scales we need. It is evident, in fact, that if
we tune perfect Fifths or any other intervals from
C or any other key- tone and expect thereby to
gain a scale that will be suitably in tune for all

32 Modern Piano Tuning.

keys in which we may want to play, we shall be
disappointed. Not only is this so, but it must
be remembered that so far we have not attempted
to consider any of the so-called sharps and flats,
except in the one case where we found two sharps
in the scale of D, properly belonging there. It
turns out, however, when we investigate the sub-
ject, that the sharp of C, when C is in the scale of
C, is quite a different thing, for instance- (as to
pitch), from the C# which is the leading tone of
the scale of D.

Chromatic Semitone. The chromatic semitone,
which found its way into the scale during the
formative period of musical art — mainly because
it filled a want — is found upon investigation to
bear to its natural the ratio ^%5 or 2%4, according
as it is a flat or a sharp. In the case we have been
considering, then, whilst C# as the leading tone
in the scale of D has a pitch, in true intona-
tion, of 270, the C# which is the chromatic
of C 256 (see previous tables) would have a pitch
of 256 X ^%4 or 266.66. Similar differences exist
in all cases between chromatic and diatonic semi-
tones, thus introducing another element of con-
fusion and impossibility into any attempt to tune
in true intonation.

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 33

Derivation of chromatic ratio. Actually the
chromatic semitone is the difference between a ^%
ratio whole tone or minor tone as it is often
called, and a diatonic semitone ; thus ^% -—

The Comma. The difference between the %
(major) and the ^% (minor) tones is called a
comma = ^%o. This is the smallest musical in-
terval and is used of course only in acoustics.

(%-^^% = «yso).^

Musical Instruments Imperfect. The above dis-
cussion, then, leads us to the truth that all musical
instruments which utilize fixed tones are neces-
sarily imperfect. As we know, the piano, the
organ and all keyed instruments are constructed
on a basis of seven white and five black keys to
each octave, or as it is generally said, on a 12-to-
the-octave basis (13 including the octave note).
If now we are to play, as we of course do play, in
all keys on this same key-board, it is evident that
we cannot tune pure diatonic scales. The imper-
fection here uncovered has, of course, existed ever
since fixed-tone musical instruments came into be-
ing. The difficulty, which has always been recog-

1 The diatonic minor scale is affected equally by this ar,?iimcnt;
but has not been mentioned here for reasons set forth in Chap.

in.

34 Modern Piano Tuning.

nized by instrument builders and musical theorists,
can be put succinctly as follows :

The piano and all keyed instruments are imper-
fect, in that they must not be tuned perfectly in
any one scale if they are to be used in more than
that one scale. Hence a system of compromise, of
some sort, must be the basis of tuning.

The violins and violin family, the slide trombone
and the human voice can of course sound in pure
intonation, because the performer can change the
tuning from instant to instant by moving his
finger on the string, modifying the length of the
tube or contracting the vocal chords. When they
are played, however, together with keyed instru-
ments, the tuning of these true intonation instru-
ments is of course modified (though unconsci-
ously), to fit the situation.

All tuning imperfect. All tuning, therefore, is
necessarily imperfect, and is based upon a system
called ' ' Temperament. ' ' This system is described
and explained completely in the third and fourth
chapters of this book.

Temperament. I have taken the reader through
a somewhat lengthy explanation of the necessity
for Temperament on the notion that thereby he
will be able to understand for himself, from the

Mechanics of the Musical Scale. 35

beginning, the necessity for doing things that
otherwise would seem illogical and inconsistent.
The peculiar kind of tuning that the piano tuner
must do would seem in the highest degree absurd
if the student did not understand the reasons for
doing what he is taught to do. Seeing also that
this correct knowledge is seldom given by those
who teach the practical side of the art, I thought
it better to go into some detail. In any case, it is
well to realize that no man can possibly be a really
artistic piano tuner unless he does know all that is
contained in this chapter and all that is contained
in the next three. It is worth while therefore to
be patient and follow through to the end the course
of the argument set forth here.^

1 A complete discussion of the problem of True or Just Intona-
tion is to be found in the classic work of Helmholtz, to which
the reader is referred. See especially Chapter XVI, Appendices 17
and 18 and the famous Appendix 20, composed by the English
translator, A. J. Ellis. My own "Theory and Practice of Piano-
forte Building" contains (Chapter VI) a useful discussion of the
Musical Scale and Musical Intonation.

Chapter II.

ON THE VIBRATION OF A PIANO STRING.

Of all sounding bodies known to music, tlie
musical string is without doubt the most common,
the most easily manipulated for musical and me-
chanical purposes, and the most efficient. Ac-
quaintance with ascertained facts as to the be-
havior of musical strings under practical condi-
tions is necessary for the complete equipment of
the piano tuner; although this acquaintance need
not be exhaustive, so long as it be, to its extent,
exact. Avoiding mathematical symbols which,
requisite as they are to a comprehensive study of
Acoustics, may nevertheless be beyond the famil-
iarity of most of those who will read this book,
I shall here briefly investigate certain properties
of musical strings and especially of the piano
string. The discussion, I can promise, need seem
neither dry nor uninteresting.

The String. To be exact, a string should be
defined as a perfectly flexible and perfectly uni-

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 37

form filament of solid material stretched between
two fixed points. But such a string, it must be ob-
served, can exist only as a mathematical abstrac-
tion, since neither perfect uniformity nor perfect
flexibility can be expected in strings made by
human hands. A string of given flexibility be-
comes more flexible, as to its whole length, if that
length be increased, and, conversely, stiffer as its
length is decreased. The property of weight also
fluctuates in the same way. Likewise if the force
whereby a given string is stretched between two
points be measured in a given number of pounds,
the effective tension equivalent thereto will of
course be decreased if the string be lengthened ; or
conversely will be increased if the string be short-
ened. A string 12 inches long stretched with a
weight of 10 pounds is subjected to a lower tension
than is a 6-inch string of similar density and
thickness stretched with the same weight. These
allowances and corrections, obvious as they are,
must constantly be kept in mind if we are to un-
derstand the behavior of practical strings, since
all the acoustical laws which govern such behavior
must be modified in practice according to the facts
disclosed above.
Simple Vibration. We have learned that mus-

38 Modern Piano Tuning.

ical sounds owe their existence to the fact that
some solid body is thrown into a state of periodic
vibration. The kind of vibration can best be ex-
plained by likening it to the swing to and fro of s
a pendulum. A pendulum is fixed at one end and
tends naturally to swing back and forth on its
pivot. The kind of vibration which the pendulum
performs is called simple or pendular vibration.
The tuning fork, when set in vibration, is also very
much the same thing as a pendulum, since one end
of each prong is fixed and the other end can there-
fore swing freely. The tuning fork furnishes,
when excited, an excellent practical example of
simple or pendular vibration of sufficient rapidity
to produce musical sound.

Tones of the Piano String. Go to a piano and
strike one of the low bass keys in the octave be-
tween A-i and A. These very low keys operate on
single strings only and hence are excellently
adapted for our purpose.^

Strike on the piano the key (say) F. Hold the

1 Incidentally, let me say that the piano is an almost complete
ready-made acoustical instrument for the investigation of the
phenomena of musical strings, sympathetic resonance, beats and
beat-tones, and partials. With a piano at hand the student can
dispense with all experimental means except the tuning-fork. I
shall suppose that a piano is at hand during the reading of this
and other chapters.

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 39

key down, and listen carefully. At first you will
hear simply the full sonorous tone F, deep and
solemn. But listen closely, repeating the experi-
ment till the ear becomes familiar, and you will
gradually observe that, mingled with the original
sound F, there are a number of other sounds, ap-
parently very closely related to the original, color-
ing it rather than altering its pitch, but at the
same time recognizable as sounds that spring from
a different level. By repeating the experiment
with various of these low strings (or by going
higher and taking care that one string in the two-
string unisons is damped off), you will gradually
be able to perceive the remarkable fact that every
piano string produces a sort of compound tone,
consisting primarily of its natural tone or funda-
mental, as we may call it, but containing also the
octave thereto, the fifth above that and the second
octave. It is true that these extra sounds are
feeble and can be heard only by means of practice
and the exercise of patience; but heard they can
be, more and more clearly as one's familiarity
with the process grows.

Partial Tones. The truth is that the piano
string does not evolve a simple but an exceedingly
complex musical tone. Not only the three extra

40 Modern Piano Tuning,

tones of which I spoke before can be proved to
exist, but in fact an immense number of other
tones, all bearing given harmonic relations to the
fundamental, can be shown to be evoked, and by
the use of suitable apparatus can be detected and
isolated, one by one, through the sense of hear-
ing. Special resonators have been made which
enable the hearer to detect these partial tones
clearly.

Even without such special apparatus, however,
we can detect a number of the partial tones if we
take advantage of the piano 's property of sympa-
thetic resonance; a property imparted by the
sound-board.

Sympathetic Resonance. Hold down the middle
C key, without striking the string. Then, while
holding the key down, strike a powerful blow on
the C immediately below. When the sound has
swelled up, let go the lower key whilst holding on
to the upper or silently pressed key. At once the
sound of middle C floats out of the silence, pure
and ethereal. What is the cause of this sound?
How has the middle C string been excited? The
answer is found in the fact that the lower string
which was struck, not only produces its funda-
mental tone but also evokes its octave above. The

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 41

peculiar sort of vibration of the C2 string which
produced this octave is resonated through the
sound-board and reproduced on the middle-C
string. In the same way, the twelfth (G3) can be
brought out, and so can the next octave C4. In
fact, with a very good piano and by choosing a low
enough sound for the fundamental, even higher
partial tones can thus be brought out by sympa-
thetic resonance from the original string to the
string corresponding with the true pitch of that
partial.^

Complex String Vibration. Thus we learn that
the piano string vibrates as a complex of vibra-
tions, not as one simple form of vibration; for it
is evident that if the string evokes, as we know it
does, a complex of sounds, these must arise from
a complex of vibrations. Let us see how this is :

Turning again to the piano, select a string in
such a position that it can be measured accurately
as to its speaking length. A grand piano is most
convenient for the purpose, and the string may be
selected from the overstrung or bass section.
Now accurately measure the speaking length of
the string between bridges, and mark carefully

1 For a further discussion of sympathetic resonance, see Chap-
ter VII.

42 Modern Piano Tuning.

with a piece of chalk on the sound-board the
exact middle point as near as you can determine
it. Then sound the string and whilst holding
down the key, touch the string at the middle point
very lightly with a feather. If you perform the
operation skilfully enough, you will find that in-
stantly the fundamental tone of the string ceases
and there floats out the octave above, quite alone
and distinct.

Measure now one-third of the length, mark it,
and again sound the string. Placing the feather
carefully at the exact division point and damping
the shorter segment with a finger, the fifth above
the original sound is heard.

Automatic string division. What is the mean-
ing of all this? Plainly in the first case it meant
that the string naturally subdivides itself into
two parts of equal length and that the vibration
of either half gives the octave above the original.
Thus we have two vitally important facts at our
disposal, one relating to the form of vibration of
the string and the other to the law of string length
as proportioned to pitch.

Moreover, in the second case, if we allowed the
Vs division of the string to vibrate, we should get
from it a sound an octave above the sound of the

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 43

longer or % division. Since we damped the
shorter segment, however, we conclude that the
fifth above the original sound was produced by a
string length % of the original length. If we now
continue our experiments we may find that % of
the original length produces a major 3rd above the
original sound, and that H of the length produces
a sound 2 octaves above the original sound.
Plainly then, we have two great laws revealed.
The first is :

When a string fixed at each end like the piano
string, is struck at one end, it vibrates in a com-
plex form, most strongly in its full length but also
perceptibly in segments of that length such as ^,
%, % and H.

The second law is equally important. It may
be stated as follows:

Length and Pitch. The pitch of a string — that
is to say, the number of vibrations, per unit of
time, it can perform, is proportional inversely to
its length. Thus, since an octave above a given
sound has twice as many vibrations per second as
the original sound, it follows that to obtain a
sound an octave above a given sound we must have
a string one-half as long.

Weight, Thickness and Tension. Similar laws

44 Modern Piano Tuning.

exist with regard to the influence upon string vi-
brations of weight, thickness and tension. With-
out undertaking to prove these completely, we
may state them briefly as follows :

The frequency of a string's vibration is in-
versely proportional to the square root of its
weight. In other words, if the weight be di-
vided by 4 (the square of 2) the frequency
will be multiplied by 2. To produce a tone one
octave below its original tone, the weight of the
string must be increased in the proportion 4:1.
To produce a tone one octave above the original
tone, the weight of the string must be only Yi its
original weight.

The frequency of string vibrations is directly
proportional to the square root of their tension.
In other words, to get twice as many vibrations,
you must multiply the tension by 2 ^ = 4. To get
four times as many vibrations you must multiply
the tension by 4 ^ = 16. So if a string be stretched
with a weight of 10 lbs. and it is desired to make it
sound an octave higher, this can be done by mak-
ing the stretching weight (4 X 10)= 40 lbs.

The frequency of string vibrations is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the string. If a
string of a given length and weight produces a

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 45

tone of a given number of vibrations, a string of
the same length and twice the thickness will give
a tone one octave lower; that is, of half the num-
ber of vibrations.

Mechanical Variable Factors. All of these
laws, be it remembered, are based on the assump-
tion of mathematical strings, in which weight and
stiffness remain constant through all changes in
length. In the case of the actual piano string,
in which the weight and tension do vary with the
length, some compensation must be made when
calculating. Thus, to illustrate, it is found that
whereas the acoustical law for frequency of vi-
bration requires a doubling of the string length at
each octave downwards or halving at each octave
upwards, the practical string, where weight and
tension vary with length, requires a proportion
of 1 : 1.875 instead of 1 : 2. This difference must
be kept in mind.^

Why Strings Subdivide. Before, however, we
go on to consider the influence exerted, through
the peculiar manner in which strings vibrate, upon
the problems of tuning and tone-quality, we must
take the trouble to discover why they should, in

1 For discussions of this point, see my "Theory and Practice
of Pianoforte Building," Chapter VIII.

46 Modern Piano Tuning.

fact, vibrate in this rather than in some other way.
It is easy to talk about string subdivision and
partial tones, but there is very little use in mouth-
ing words that do not carry with them to our
minds real meanings, or in talking about processes
which we do not really understand. So, let us
take the trouble to discover why a string vibrates
as we have shown it to vibrate. Here again, the
piano shall be our instrument of investigation.

The Wash-line Experiment. The first thing to
realize when we begin to talk about string vibra-
tions is that the vibration itself is merely the
transmission of a motion from one end of the
string to the other. This motion will continue un-
til it is transformed into some other sort of energy
or else is thrown out of its direction into another
direction. Suppose that you take a long cord, like
a wash-line. Obtain one as much as twenty feet
long. Fasten one end to a post and stretch the
cord out until you hold the other end in your hand
with the entire length fairly slack. Now try to
jerk the cord up and down so that you can get it
to vibrate in one long pulse. That pulse will af-
fect the entire length of the cord, which you will
observe to rise from its plane of rest, belly out
in a sort of wave, descend to the point of rest

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 47

again, belly out once more on tlie opposite side
and return to the point of rest, making a complete
swing to and fro. Compare the illustration fig-
ure 6.

When you find that you can do this (practice is
needed), try a different experiment. Try to jerk
the cord with a sort of short sharp jerk so that,
instead of vibrating in its whole length, a sort of

Figure 6.

hump is formed on the cord which travels like a
wave through a body of water. This short wave
will travel along the whole cord, as you will be able
to see by watching it narrowly, until it comes to
the end fixed on the post. At once you will see
that the wave, instead of disappearing, is reflected
back, reversing its direction of travel and also its
position, being now on the opposite side of the
cord. Thus reflected, the short wave travels back
to you.

This is an example of what is called the reflec-

48 Modern Piano Tuning.

Hon of a sound impulse. But it has a very impor-
tant bearing on the general problem of piano
string vibration, as we shall see.

Suppose that you are able to time your efforts
so carefully that you can deliver a series of these
short sharp jerks, forming these short waves, at
the rate of one per second. If you time your im-
pulses carefully, you will find that the second
impulse will start away from your hand just as the

Figure 7.

first impulse starts back from the fixed end of
the string. The two impulses, traveling in
opposite directions and in opposite phases of
motion (in positions on the cord opposite to each
other), will meet precisely in the center, for neither
one can pass the other. At their meeting place, the
exact middle of the string, the forces are equal and
opposite, so that a node or point of greatly dimin-
ished amplitude of motion is formed. The two
pulses therefore have no option but to continue
vibrating independently, thus dividing the string
into two independently vibrating halves, each of

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 49

double the original speed. See the illustration
figure 7.

Meanwhile a second impulse from the hand be-
gins to travel along the cord and upon its meeting
the already segmented halves the result is a fur-
ther reflection and subdivision. This again con-
tinues still further at the next impulse, so that
finally, if the impulses can be kept up long enough,
the result will be the division of the cord into four,
five, six, and up to perhaps ten of these "ventral
segments," separated by nodes.

Harmonic Motion. This being the mode of vi-
bration of slow moving cords, we can see how the
rapidly moving piano strings are instantly thrown
into the state of complex vibration described
above ; for we must remember that not only is the
vibration very rapid, ranging from 27 to more than
4100 vibrations per second, but also that there is
no limit to the possible number of subdivisions.
Moreover, the piano string is very stiff and being
fixed at both ends and excited by a stiff blow, its
motion is not only rapid but powerful, so that the
reflections are unusually strong and numerous.
Hence the wave of motion of the piano string is
remarkably complex.

Besultant Motion. The entire complex motion

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 51

of the piano string is of course the result of the
operation of many forces, moving from different
directions, upon a single resistance; so that the
result of the interference of the forces with each
other is that their net efficiency works out in some
direction which is a resultant of all the directions.
Thus, the piano string, if it be examined under mo-
tion by any optical method, is seen to vibrate in a
wave motion which is the resultant of all the par-
tial motions. The general appearance of such a
wave is as shown in the illustration, figure 8, which
gives (theoretically) the resultant of a wave mo-
tion including subdivision into six segments.^
The piano usually has the first eight and often the
ninth, in the lower and middle registers, and still
higher partials in the high treble, but the latter
can hardly be isolated without special apparatus ;
and then not easily. Of course, as we shall see
later, there are certain causes which affect the
form of the wave in the piano string, in practical

1 This illustration is after the original by Prof. A. M. Mayer,
of Stevens Institute, one of the most eminent of American acous-
ticians. Professor Mayer's drawings of harmonic curves and re-
sultants were first published in the Philosophical Magazine for
1875. In order to show clearly the six separate wave motions,
their respective amplitudes have been made proportional to wave
length. This is of course a scientific fiction, but the eflFect upon
the resultant curve is not markedly distorting.

52 Modern Piano Tuning.

conditions, and so modify the series of partials.
Fourier's Theorem. One of the greatest of
French mathematicians, Fourier, investigating an-
other subject altogether, discovered the law of
this harmonic motion of a string when he showed
that every complex vibratory motion can be re-
duced to a series of simple pendular motions, of
which the terms are as follows :

1 1/ 1/ 1/ IZ 1/. 1/4 1/ 1/. V-ir, ^i<^- «"^ infinitum.
1, 72, 73, A, /5, /G, /7, /S, /9, /lO,

In other words, the very subdivision of the piano
string into segments is here shown mathematically
to be the necessary basis of all compound motion
in vibrational form. Thus mathematics, from an-
other angle, amply confirms the ideas above set
forth.i

Partial Tones. The string, then, vibrates in its
whole length, its y2, Vs, Vi, M, Yc, Vi, Vs, and smaller
segments indefinitely. The whole length vibra-
tion produces the fundamental tone of the string.
The % gives twice as many vibrations, or the oc-
tave above. The Vs gives the twelfth, and the %
gives the double octave. Thus, the piano string
C 64, when sounded, actually involves not only the
fundamental tone but all the following:

ij. B. Fourier, 1768-1830, author of "Analysis of Determinate
Equations."

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 53

First 16 partiala of Ci = 64.

Ej 63 Bbj C4 D4 E* Ft»4 G* A* Bb* BK C5

\>0 y

r rf^r f

12 3 4

64 128 192 256

5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 r6
320 384 448 512 576 640 704 766 832 896 960 (024

Figure 9.

and many more not shown. All these are called
partials. The fundamental is the first partial, the
octave is the second, and so on. Above the tenth,
although the number of possible subdivisions is
unlimited, the pitch becomes less and less definitely
referable to any specific note of the scale. The
first 6 partials, as can be seen, are simply the
common chord of C spread out. The 8th, 10th,
12tli and 16th are octaves to the 4th, 5th, 6th and
8th. The 7th is flatter than the diatonic seventh
which we use, although the former is the natural
tone and the latter quite artificial.^ The other
odd-numbered partials are all more or less out of
tune with their nominal equivalents, until, at a
short distance above the 16th, all pretence of con-
sonance except in the 20th, 24th and 32nd, has van-
ished.

1 Cf. Chapter 1, "Natural Scale."

54 Modern Piano Tuning.

Influence of Partials. It should be remembered
that, although all the odd- and most of the even-
numbered partials above the 10th are dissonant
and this dissonance progressively increases — if
one may use the term — the number of partials that
may occur above the 10th in a piano string is
quite large. This being the case, it will be under-
stood that although these partials are relatively
feeble, and their sounds do not affect the general
sensation of pitch, they do have another effect;
and this is felt in what is called the ** quality" or
''color" of the sound. In fact, as we shall soon
see, the harshness or mellowness, thinness or full-
ness, of a sound, as evoked from the piano, not
to mention the greater characteristic differences
which distinguish the tone of one instrument from
that of another, are all to be attributed to the
manner in which the various partials are mixed
with the fundamental.

Series of Partials. But why should there be
from one piano string a mixture of partial tones
different from that which persists in another?
For that matter, since the tendency of other sonor-
ous bodies, like pipes for instance, is to divide up
naturally into ventral segments, like strings, why
should not all tone quality be alike? Obviously

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 55

the difference must arise because one wave form
varies from another ; or in other words because one
string or pipe or rod produces one specific mix-
ture of partials and another a different mixture.
Why this should be so in the case of the piano
string, which is our present concern, I shall now
comprehensively explain, and the following dis-
cussion will be of great assistance in promoting
an understanding of some most important prob-
lems.

Point of Contact. The piano string is excited
by a more or less violent blow from a felt-covered
hammer. The impulse thus given to the string is
relatively powerful, and its effect upon the highly
tensioned filament of steel is such as to induce
instant reflection of the sound-impulse and sub-
division of the string into many ventral segments.
But the exact individual segments into which the
subdivision takes place are determined by one spe-
cial condition ; namely, by the position of the ham-
mer's point of contact. As will be remembered,
the segments of the string are separated from each
other by points of apparent rest called nodes. Of
course, these nodes are not actually at rest, but the
amplitude of their motion is greatly restricted by
reason of the opposed forces pulling from each

56 Modern Piano Tuning.

side upon them. If now the exciting blow is
struck exactly on one of the nodes, the vibration
of the shorter of the two segments into which that
node divides the string, and equally the vibrations
of all multiples thereof, are blotted out. Thus, if
we wish to eliminate the 7th partial, we must
strike on the 7th node, that is to say at exactly Vi
of the string's speaking length. It is obvious that
since the first six partials are simply components
of the common chord of the fundamental or 1st
partial, and the 8th is triple octave thereto, the
elimination of the 7th will produce a perfectly
harmonious flow of partials and in consequence a
full round mellow tone. Experience confirms this
deduction, although the exigencies of piano build-
ing usually compel a striking distance, as it is
called, positioned at Vs or even higher for the
greater number of the strings, and running pro-
gressively higher in the upper treble till it some-
times reaches /44 at the extreme C7. The influence
of contact point position is thus clearly shown,
for if any of the very high strings be purposely
struck at lower points than the hammers are
fixed to strike them, it will be found that their
tone is less bright, more mellow and even feebler.
The last quality is due to the fact that the prime

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 57

or 1st partial of these short stiff strings is not
sufficiently powerful of itself and needs the back-
ing, as one may say, of many partials to give it
consistency and ^^ring." It might be remem-
bered incidentally that in the two highest octaves
of the piano the progressively higher contact
points of the hammers on the strings introduce
series of partials running from the first ten to
the first twenty. But the longer and more natu-
rally powerful strings are struck at about Vs of
their distance and would often be bettor off if
struck at Yt.

Material. The properties of the material from
which the string is made are also of importance in
considering the precise nature of the mixture of
partials which any given example may show. The
stiffer a string is, other things being equal, the
more rapid and complex will be the reflections of
wave-motion and the consequent formation of ven-
tral segments. By stiffness I do not mean thick-
ness; for of course the thicker the string the
less intense will be the wave-reflections and the
fewer the high partials produced. But the piano
is peculiar in that the tension of its strings does
not vary largely from one end to the other, whilst
the thickness does indeed differ very largely in

58 Modern Piano Tuning.

proportion, since even in the understrung part of
the scale the difference betwen the extreme treble
and the first above the overstrung will usually be
something like the difference between 5 and 8. So
it follows that the upper treble strings are very-
much stiffer than those in the lower regions, in
proportion to their length. Of course, the length
factor enters into the complex here too, for the
higher strings are shorter, and so again stiffer, for
any given stretching force.
/ / Wire density. In the circumstances it would

seem, after one has tested various pianos of vari-
ous grades, that the idea of intensely hard wire is
most distinctly a wrong idea; at least if we are
trying to get round full tone and not hard glitter.
The very hard wire is no longer so generally de-
manded, and piano makers are begining to require
a string of softer steel which shall tend to produce,
under the lowered tension conditions thus made
necessary, vibrational mixtures involving fewer
ventral segments, the upper of which with their
consequent partials shall be less prominent.

String Tension. A softer wire cannot with-
stand excessive tensions. But we can easily see
that high tension means stiffness, and one only
has to listen critically to the tone of most pianos

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 59

to realize that their strings do not err on the side
of resiliency. They are usually too stiff as it is,
and although the craze for clang and noise seems
to be dying out — for which we should be thank-
ful— still, there is much to be done yet. The piano
of the future, let us hope, will be a low tension
piano, equipped with softer wire and with a ham-
mer shaped and positioned to kill the 7th harmonic
and all its multiples ; a piano which will have few
partials in its tone above the seventh and which
in consequence will evoke sounds, full, mellow and
sustained in quality.^

Voicing. In Chapter IX of this book, I make use
of the material here set forth in order to show
the practical application of Acoustical science to
the work of tone-regulating or voicing pianos by
manipulation of the hammer felt.

Simultaneous String Vibrations. We shall now
have to face the last and in some ways the most
fascinating of all the subjects which we shall con-
front in the course of our examination into the
vibrations of the piano string. So far we have

1 other piano string characteristics: For some special cases
exhibited by piano strings under practical conditions, the reader
may consult Chapter VII. Piano Ibass strings: The special cases
exhibited by the covered strings for the bass tones, are dis-
cussed in Chapter VII.

60 Modern Piano Tuning.

confined our thought to individual strings sound-
ing alone. We now have to consider the very
beautiful and important phenomena arising from
the sounding of two tones simultaneously. The
inquiry is of the utmost importance in the higher
analysis of piano tuning.

Beats. The piano serves us again to good pur-
pose in examining the behavior of simultaneously
sounded tones. Let us damp off one string in a
triple unison on the piano. (All strings of the
modern piano above the overstrung section are
strung with three strings to the note.) This will
leave two strings vibrating. If the piano has not
been tuned very recently, it is almost certain that
when we listen carefully to the sounding of these
two strings we shall hear a sort of sound that
can only be described as discontinuous and
**wavy." In order to make sure, suppose we
choose the strings corresponding to Cg = 258.65
(middle C at international pitch). Let us damp
one string of the triple and then slightly turn the
pin of one of the others so as definitely to put
it out of tune with its fellow. A very slight turn,
just enough to feel the string give, will be suffi-
cient. Now, take a tuning fork sounding exactly
the same international pitch Q^= 258.65. Sound

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 61

it, and listen carefully. You will hear a clear con-
tinuous tone, which persists without deviation or
fluctuation. Put aside the tuning fork, strike the
piano key, and listen. By contrast you hear a con-
fused medley of sound, in which the fundamental
pitch is discernible, but is surrounded by, and
buried in, a mass of wavy, fluctuating, rising-and-
falling sounds of a peculiar character, which are
unmistakable when once heard. The peculiar
character of these sounds is their rise-and-fall ef-
fect. The tone swells out far beyond its normal
intensity and then dies away. This wave-like
sound rises and falls at definite intervals, and it
will be seen that the further apart in pitch the
two strings are, the more of these rise-and-fall
periods there will be in a given time. If now we
begin to turn the tuning-pin backward, so as to
bring the disturbed string again to its original
equality of pitch with the other, we shall find that
the wavy sounds gradually become slower and
slower, until at length they disappear, and only
the pure continuous tuning-fork tone remains;
showing that the two strings have now been
brought into perfect accord. Let us see what
causes this interesting phenomjenon.
Condensation and Rarefaction. We must go

Figure 10.

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 63

back for a few moments to some earlier considera-
tions. A sound-wave is an oscillation to and fro.
When a tuning fork prong vibrates, the first half
of the vibration is when the prong moves away
from its rest position and pushes the air in front
of it against the surrounding air. This pai-t of
the vibration has the effect of compressing the air
on that side, whilst on the other side the air moves
forward to fill up the vacuum left by the moving
away of the prong and thus is rarefied or thinned.
Consider a vibrating pendulum (Fig. 10), and
think of it as if it were a slow moving tuning fork.
As the pendulum moves in one direction it con-
denses or compresses the air in front of it, and
then as it moves back that same air is again rare-
fied or thinned out to its original density ; for air is
elastic and rebounds. Thus each complete vibra-
tion of tuning-fork, string, or pendulum, no mat-
ter how slow or rapid, produces a condensation
followed by a rarefaction of the surrounding air.
Wave-length. The space or distance between
one condensation and the next, or between one

Figure 11.

64 Modern Piano Tuning.

rarefaction and the next, is called the wave-length.
The more of these pulses there are in a second or
other unit of time, the shorter the length of each.
Sound travels at the rate of 1100 feet per second,
roughly speaking — the wave-length of a tone of
100 vibrations per second therefore is ^^^%oo or
11 feet. Figure 11 illustrates this point.

Phase. Thus we see that a sound-wave propa-
gated through the air consists of a series of these
oscillations of rarefaction and condensation.

Figure 12.

Now suppose that you start two such wave systems
simultaneously from two strings perfectly in tune.
Start them exactly at the same time so that the
condensations begin together. A good example
is the striking of two strings at once on the piano.
The two run exactly together, condensation with
condensation and rarefaction with rarefaction, as
is shown by Figure 12, and are said to be in the
same phase.
Difference of Phase. Now suppose we can ar-

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 65

range to start one string vibrating just half a
complete vibration beliind the other. Then con-
densation of No. 2 begins with the first rarefac-

FlGURE 13.

tion of No. 1 and we have the state of affairs
pictured in Figure 13. Such a condition is called
difference of phase.

Difference of one vibration. Suppose two piano
strings, one of which gives just one vibration less
per second than the other. Now, when these two
strings are sounded simultaneously, it follows that
at the end of a whole second one will be exactly
one vibration behind the other. Likewise at the
end of half a second one will be half a vibration
behind the other ; or in other words at the end of
half a second, or right in the middle of one sec-
ond's complete series of vibrations, the two will
be in different phases, while at the end of a whole
second they will have regained identity of phase ;
will be in the same phase together again. Sup-
pose now we lay out on paper two wave systems,
whose frequencies shall be in the ratio 8 : 9, for the

Modern Piano Tuning.

sake of simplicity. Let us also
show, by a third wave-curve, the
result of the simultaneous activi-
ties of the two waves. In order
to avoid a complex drawing I show
just eight vibrations of the one and
nine of the other. These will con-
sequently begin and end together.

Resonance and Interference.
Now as soon as we examine these
superimposed curves, we see that
at the second complete vibration
they are distinctly out of step with
each other and by the time one has
made four complete vibrations
they are in definitely opposite
phase. From this point onwards
the difference subsides until at the
eighth vibration of the one and the
ninth of the other, the phase is
again the same for both.

Now, it will at once be seen that
when the two waves start, two
condensations come together and
so we have one condensation on
top of the other, which of course

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 67

means an increase in amplitude of the combined
sound. Hence at the beginning of the waves the
sound of the combined tones will be increased over
the sound of either of them alone. We have a
condition of resonance, as it is called.

On the other hand, when the middle of the curve
has been reached we see that the condensation
of one meets the rarefaction of the other exactly,
so that at this point the one wave blots out the
other and produces a perfect interference as it is
called, cancelling the sound altogether.

Hence we have the rise and fall of sound which
we heard so clearly in the two piano strings men-
tioned above.^ This rise and fall is very distinct
and in the present case would occur at each 8-to-9
period; in other words, if the two waves were
vibrating at 80 and 90 vibrations per second re-
spectively, there would be heard 10 beats per sec-
,ond between them when sounded together.

Frequency of Beats. Beats therefore arise be-
tween sounds nominally in unison but actually
slightly out of tune with each other. The number
of beats in a given time is equal to the difference
between the frequencies of the generating tones.

Coincident Partials. Beats arise only between

1 See pages 60 and 61.

68 Modern Piano Tuning.

unisons. When heard in such intervals as the
Octave, Fifth, Fourth, Third or others, this is
because partial tones which may be common to
both are thrown out of tune slightly ; and the beats
arise between them. For instance, the beats in
an octave which is somewhat out of tune arise
between the prime of the upper tone and the
second of the lower; which are the same. Ex-
ample: C, = CA and C2 = 128. Prime of the
higher is 128. Second of the lower is 128.^ These
are therefore coincident, and if the strings which
produce the primes are not in accord, the coinci-
dent partials will generate beats as above. The
same is true in the interval of a perfect Fifth where
the coincident partials are the 2nd of the higher
and the 3rd of the lower. Please observe that the
coincident partials always bear the same num-
bers as express the ratio of the fundamentals.
Thus octave ratio = 1:2 and coincident partials
are 2 and 1. Fifth ratio ==2:3 and coincident
partials are 3 and 2. Fourth ratio = 3:4, and co-
incident partials are 4 and 3; and so on for
all other intervals. For instance: Suppose one
tone = 200 and another = 301. The interval is a
Fifth, slightly out of tune, as the higher should be

1 See supra, p. 53.

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 69

300. Coincident partials are 3d lower and 2d
higher. 200 X 3 = 600 ; 301 X 2 = 602. 602 —
600 ^ 2 ^ number of beats per second in this
out-of-tune Fifth.

Use of Beats. From what I have said, it be-
comes plain that the tuner will find beats very use-
ful and must devote himself to practicing the art
of hearing them and counting them. For it is evi-
dent that if the number of beats between any two
coincident partials is equal to tlie difference be-
tween the frequencies thereof, then if we calculate
the exact required frequency of each of the two
members of an interval and from this calculate the
frequency of their lowest coincident partials, w^e
can easily and at once take the difference be-
tween the two latter, and whatever this differ-
ence be, that number of beats per second will be
heard between them when sounded together.
Therefore if we tune the two members of the in-
terval so that we hear just that number of beats
per second between them, we have tuned cor-
rectly. It then remains only to calculate these
true values for the different tones of the piano and
thus to establish proper beat-rates everywhere.

Miller's Researches. There is nothing unusual
in all this really, for of course all tuners tune by

70 Modern Piano Tuning.

counting beats, whether they call the process by
this name or another. The point I am making
here is that this process is the proper and natural
process and that it is capable of being established
mathematically, as has been done by Mr. J. C.
Miller of Lincoln, Neb.; whose researches I am
happy to be able to make use of in this book, as
will be seen later.

We have now discussed to such an extent as is
necessary for our present purposes the behavior
of piano strings in vibration ; and have discovered
that this discussion, if properly understood, is
found to give us all needed assistance in both tun-
ing and voicing, provided we can calculate the
necessary frequencies of the tones required on the
piano. We already know ^ that the piano does not
permit pure tuning of the diatonic scale but that
a system of compromise must be adopted to ac-
commodate the inequalities of the diatonic scale
to the unyielding 12 keys of the piano's octave.
The system of Temperament used for this pur-
pose, called the Equal Temperament, is now so
firmly ingrained in practice that it is in fact the
real basis of all modern music; rather than the
diatonic scale, which indeed is now little more

1 Supra, Chap. I.

On the Vibration of a Piano String. 71

than an artificial abstraction. Of this, however, I
shall speak in the next chapter.

If the present chapter has seemed at all involved
this is only because I have had to treat an in-
volved subject in simple language and small space.
Still, all I have said here has been necessary and
forms part of the argument which I am develop-
ing as to a system of piano tuning and tone-regu-
lating; based on science and not on guesses or
rule-of-thumb — and a good deal easier than if it
were so based.

For, indeed, among all the ridiculous supersti-
tions of the human mind, none is either commoner
or more absurd than that which covers with con-
tempt the efforts of pioneers to formulate and
apply scientific method. In truth, to do things
scientifically is always to do them in the easiest
as well as the best, way; and your ^'practical
man," untainted with one touch of theory, wastes
time and energy in equal proportion.

Chapter III.

TEMPERAMENT.

We have reached the central position in the
science of tuning. What has gone before has been
enough to show that one cannot obtain a series of
pure diatonic scales, in the quantity required for
the performance of music, with a key-board com-
prising only twelve keys to the octave. The par-
ticular method adopted in Chapter I for the pur-
pose of showing the truth of this assertion might
of course be matched by a dozen others; without
altering the facts in the least. For example, I
might have pointed out that an ascending series of
perfectly tuned perfect Fifths, although nominally
equal to seven Octaves, yet actually exceeds them.
I might have shown that three major Thirds should
be equal to an Octave, if tuned pure one above the
other ; but that in fact they fall considerably short
thereof. There are many other possible illustra-
tions; but I have already shown, in the simplest

Temperament. 73

manner, that some form of compromise is needed
if pianos are to be tuned so as to make the per-
formance of music in all tonalities tolerable de-
spite the defective and inadequate 12-to-the-octave
key-board.

The word Temperament is generically used to
indicate any one of the many such systems that
have been, at one time or another, proposed and
used. It must be remembered that the present
type of key-board dates certainly from the 14th
century and has scarcely undergone any change
in details — positively none in essentials — during
all that time.^ This is an amazing commentary
on the slowness of the human mind and its hatred
of change. It is a fact that the width of an octave,
even, has remained the same for certainly three
hundred years. And the same slowness of de-
velopment is true in other details.^

Influence of the key-hoard. The truth implied

1 A terra-cotta model showing a rudimentary form of key-
board used with an Hydraulikon or water-organ, has been found
in the ruins of Carthage, and is assigned to the second century
A. D. Cf . A. J. Hipkins' "Introduction to the Key-board Instru-
ment Collection," Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

2 The great organ at Halberstadt, Germany, built in 1361 by
the priest Nicholas Faber, had a complete chromatic key-board,
but with very wide keys. However, sixteenth century clavichords
are preserved showing key-boards essentially identical with that
of the modern piano in width and even in moimting.

74 Modern Piano Tuning.

in Chapter I may now be realized completely : that
the key-board has always exercised a distinctly
enslaving influence upon the development of
music. If we were not chained to the 12-note key-
board by the tradition of music teaching and of
piano making, we should soon have a substitute,
as easily taught to the hand, whereby at least the
grosser imperfections of any temperament sys-
tem might be avoided. But to hope this is to hope
too much.

Meaning of Temperament. Actually, the word
Temperament means ' ' tuning ' ' ; nothing else. Its
derivations from the Italian and thence from the
Latin, show this clearly. To ''temper" sounds
is to tune them. And this fact indicates that the
necessity for a compromise from purity was rec-
ognized very early and that just intonation has
never been even near accomplishment in ordinary
practice. In fact the system of Temperament
now in use is probably the best that has yet been
contrived, although it has had one rival whose
claims are not to be despised.

Equal Temperament. The twelve keys within
the octave must, of course, represent amongst
themselves the various degrees or steps of rela-
tionship existing within that interval. Seeing

Temperament. 75

that we cannot gain purity of ratio with only
twelve keys, it follows that we must divide up the
octave in some way that will admit, as adequately
as may be, of performing required music in a toler-
able manner. Equal Temperament is the name
given to a system of dividing up the octave into
twelve equal parts. This being the case and the
pitch proportion of the octave interval being 1 : 2,
it follows that the proportion from semitone to
semitone in equal temperament is 1 r^y or
1 : 1.0594631, correct to seven places of decimals.
This ratio is the ratio of the equal semitone, upon
which the system is based.

The Equal Tempered Scale. This being so, we
have only to select some standard of pitch for
some one tone and calculate up and down there-
from by the simple process of multiplying or divid-
ing, semitone by semitone, by the factor 1.0594631.

The octave of course remains the one interval
which retains its purity. This is so, because we
must have a system of some sort and the octave
provides a foundation therefor. Hence the octave
remains pure, and so if we once calculate the
equal tempered pitch of the 12 semitones in one
octave we can obtain that of any one of the tones
situated in any other octave by multiplying by 2

76 Modern Piano Tuning.

for eacli octave of distance upwards or dividing
by 2 for each octave of distance downwards.

Thus we may say that Equal Temperament is a
system in which the octave interval is tuned pure
and all other intervals are tuned in such a way as
to produce a tone-series of 12 equal parts within
each octave.

International Pitch. The nominal standard now
recognized for the basis of pitch in the United
States is A3 = 435. This is the same as the
French Normal Diapason, from which indeed it is
taken. Assuming this as our standard, we have
the following frequencies for the A throughout the
compass of the piano, beginning at the lowest :

A-,

- 27.1875

— 54.375

- 108.75

= 217.5

— 435

- 870

-1740

A«

-3480

The piano's scale in equal temperament. With
the above figures as our standard of measurement,
and multiplying for each semitone upwards by the

Temperament. 77

equal semitone ratio, we get the table on the next
page, showing the complete range of frequencies
for the entire 88 notes of the piano.^

Object of the Table. My object in setting forth
this Table is not to confuse the student but to
enable him to see how a system of tuning in Equal
Temperament may easily be worked out; one far
simpler and considerably more likely to lead to
correct practice than any other based on guess.
The Table is the preliminary essential in the argu-
ment now to be set forth.

By examining the Table we observe that if any
column be taken, the figures from top to bottom
thereof represent the progression of frequencies
in the sounds of an ascending octave. All columns
to right of any such column are ascending octaves
and all columns to the left are descending octaves.
From column to column we may proceed by either
multiplying or dividing by 2 at each column.
The octave interval is pure and the others are

1 In reality the names used for the tones in the equal tem-
pered scale are incorrect, since they are the same as those of the
pure diatonic scale. For purposes of convenience we continue to
say C, B flat, G sharp and so on, whereas it would be more ac-
curate simply to number the septave C to B as 1 to 12. How-
ever, seeing the musical notation still sticks to the old key-sys-
tem, though this no longer means anything in point of char-
acter, the old names are respected in the table, the sharps and
flats being noted as coinciding.

.>*

• 00

; • • eo

• • .(MOO'*<M-<*<0000'*i» •
■ ■ ■00(MCOO«0(>aOOOCOODO ■

■ ■ 'Tiicoi— locor-icoocgococa ;
; ; ;oo^(Mco<ro-*io<»t~ooffli |

o
O

... o •

• • • CO O U5 rH CO CD in O O O CO ■*. •

■ ■ ■ t--^ cc o in ^' o i-< in i-H o .-H «o |

. . . 1— 1 Tf CO »-i lO Oi «> 1^ (M 1-^ <M 1^ .

ininincoocDt-t^QOcooiO

■D
o

• • • in o

• ■ •coooiinoscot^ininC'CCOJ •

■ ■ 'co-^ot^ininint-^oinooo '

■ ■ 'inir^CSOtN-^COOCi— cfOtoQO .

. . . OJ o

• ■■ •coOr-;t--oieqoqi>-c<]in'^i-; ■

; ■ ; ffi t-^ in CO cj oi (m' cc in i~-^ o 'i^ "
(McoTjHincDt^oooiO^cc-* ■

i-lrHr-(i-HnHr-<>-H,-l<MiM(M(M

■ • -cooininin m m in-
• • • .-H lo iq GO Tj^ CO Tj; CO «5 1-- (>i o •
; ; ■ •>*' CO oj CO F-H !» ^' (ffl oq CO in (m' ;

COCOt^t-COOOOCiOO^tN

i-H 1— 1 .— 1 1— 1

Octave

• • • CO in t-- (M t^ in c-1 t-

• • • O l?I C<1 ■^_ t--; >-; I--; M; CO CO CO o •

■ ■ ■ c^i -t CD co" o co' in" 00 I-H -+ t-I »-i ;
cocococoTtiT»<-<*'<tiin»nincD

Sub
Octave

r-HCoin

oi oi CO

Temperament.

worked out on the equal semitone system as ex-
plained.

Comparison of Intonations. Before undertak-
ing to show how tuning in Equal Temperament
may most easily be performed, I shall give here a
comparison, for the student's benefit, of three pure
major diatonic scales built on two of the tempered
tone degrees taken from Table I.^ The first scale
is the tempered scale, the second is a pure diatonic

TABLE II. COMPARATIVE FREQUENCES OP TEMPERED SCALE

AND THREE DIATONIC MAJOR SCALES TAKEN ON

1ST, 2ND, AND 3RD CHROMATIC TEMPERED

DEGREES OP TEMPERED SCALE

Pure Diatonic Pure Diatonic Pure Diatonic
C Scale D Scale Dp Scale

(Major) (Major) (Major)

Cj ....258.65

Dj, .... 290.2 Dp .... 274.00

D 290.98

E 326.47 EJJ .... 308.25

E 323.3

F 344.8 FJf 362.75 F 342.5

G 386.93 G> 365.33

G 387.97

A 435.3 Ap ....411.00

A 431.08

B 483.60 Bl? 456.66

B 484.97

O3 517.3 C 513.75

CJf., ...544.12 Dl> 548.00

Equal Tempered

C Scale

( Chromatic )

. > •

..258.65

CJ-

-Dl>

..274.00

..290.2

DS-

-E^

..307.5

..325.9

. .345 3

F#-

-GJJ

..365.7

..387.5

G#-

-AP

..410.5

..435.

A#-

-Bi>

..460.8

..488.2

. .517.3

c#-

-Dl>

..548.

..580.

.580.

1 The minor scale has not been considered because its difference
from the major is merely in the detail of intervals. The argu-
ments already made apply with equal force to the minor scale.
See supra. Chap. I,

80 Modern Piano Tuning.

major scale built on the same Cg = 258.65, tlie sec-
ond in a pure major diatonic scale built on the tem-
pered major second to C (D), and the third a
pure diatonic major built on the tempered D flat.
The pure diatonic scales are worked out from each
on the basis of the ratios of the diatonic scale
major {supra Chapter I) ; and the object of the
comparison is simply to show what effect the
Equal Temperament has on purity of intonation.

Advantages of Equal Temperament. These
tables show clearly some of the peculiar defects
of the Equal Temperament; but they show also
some of its peculiar advantages. For it will be
seen that at the cost of some perceptible disso-
nances in certain intervals — dissonances which we
shall shortly calculate definitely — we gain the abil-
ity to perform music in all tonalities, by aid of the
traditional 12-note key-board.

Disadvantages of Equal Temperament. At the
same time we must not lose sight of the fact that
in reality the Equal Temperament is a comprom-
ise, and a loose compromise, with fact. If it were
not for the organ and piano, the imperfections of
Equal Temperament would be more easily per-
ceived; but the dynamic powers and immense

Temperament. 81

harmonic resources of these two instruments have
endeared them to musicians and have concealed
the roughness of their intonation. No one who
has read the previous chapter and understands
how to listen for beats, however, can long endure
the intonation of the organ on such intervals as
minor thirds. The sustained tones of that instru-
ment bring out beats very clearly and produce
a generally distressing effect for delicate ears.
Of course, the truth is that most of us are so used
to tempered intonation that we recognize nothing
else and know of no other possibility. Yet the
fact remains that whoever has heard one of the
few experimental key-board instruments that have
been constructed to play in pure intonation has
been entranced with the sweetness of music thus
played. It is far more beautiful than tempered
intonation and in fact seems to impart to the music
of these instruments a new sweetness and concord.
So long, of course, as the manufacture of pianos
and organs is stressed rather on its industrial
than on its artistic side we shall probably have to
remain content with Equal Temperament. But it
might as well be observed that if the piano and
organ were out of the way, music throughout the

82 Modern Piano Tuning.

world would be on some basis of tuning other than
Equal Temperament within ten years. ^

Meanwhile we must be content to tune in Equal
Temperament as well as we can, knowing that
when such work is well done it is very satisfactory
and serves well the requirements of modern music
and modern musicians.

Meantone Temperament. Before going on to
consider the method of tuning in Equal Tempera-
ment, however, I should like to mention the imme-
diate predecessor of the Equal Temperament ; the
famous Meantone Temperament, which flourished
from the 16th to the early part of the 19th century
and may be occasionally found to-day on organs
in obscure European villages. This system con-
sists in tuning a circle of fifths equally flat, in
such a way as to leave all the thirds major nearly
pure. In order, however, to be used for all re-
quired keys, it is necessary to have extra key-
levers, for the flats and sharps of adjacent tones
are not identical. For perfect performance in all
tonalities, not less than 27 tones to the octave are

iThe reader who doubts this miglit consult Ellis (App. 20 to
Helmholtz), Helmholtz, chapter 16, Perronet Tliompson, "Theory
and Practice of Just Intonation," and Zahm, "Sound and Music."
My own book, "Tlioory and Practice of Pianoforte Buildin<^," con-
tains a close analysis of the requirements of Just Intonation,

Temperament. 83

required, but tlie greater number of tonalities can
be used with 16 keys to the octave ; the additional
tones being for D flat, E flat, A flat and B flat.
The ordinary 12-tone key-board would give, of
course, starting from C, only the circle of Fifths,
which when transposed to the same octave result
in the following scale :

C, C#, D, D#, E, F, F#, G, Gj, A, Ajf, B.

Unfortunately, in this temperament, C# will not
do for D flat, D# for E flat, G# for A flat or A#
for B flat. These tones of course have to be incor-
porated somehow and in some 18th century organs
were built into the manual by dividing up some
of the black keys, which were cut across the mid-
dle with the back half slightly raised above the
front. The mean tone system gives a ''sweet"
and harmonious effect for nearly all keys, with
16 tones to the octave, although of course this num-
ber still lacks 11 tones to make it quite adequate.
However, even with 12 tones to the octave, an ex-
periment in meantone temperament can be tried,
and will sound veiy attractive so long as one keeps
within the range of keys allowable. To make the
best of the key-board we have, the following
method may be tried. Start with C and tune the

84 Modem Piano Tuning.

major third C — E perfect. Then tune the fifths
from C round to E by Fifths and Octaves, equally
flat, testing until the right degree of flatness is ob-
tained. All other notes can be had by tuning pure
major Thirds and pure Octaves. By this system
it is possible to play in the keys of B flat, F, C, D
and A major, and G, D, and A minor. The reason,
of course, is as stated below. This is a very use-
ful experiment and if tried out carefully will en-
able the student to play old music in the tuning for
which it was intended; an experience sometimes
most illuminating and delightful.^

The ''Beat" System. I have mentioned these
things because I am anxious to have the student
understand that the Equal Temperament is not
the only possible system of tuning. But to get
now definitely to the method of tuning in Equal
Temperament, which is the system which the tuner
to-day uses universally, let us see what is the
nature of our problem.

The Table of frequencies (Table I) suggests the
method we shall use. We know ^ that beats afford

1 The student might consult the extremely useful and interest-
ing article, "Temperament," by James Lecky, in Grove's "Diction-
ary of Music and Musicians."

2 Supra, Chapter II.

Temperament. 85

us a simple and accurate way of judging the devia-
tion from consonance of one tone sounded with an-
other. Since we cannot trust the unaided ear to
tune successively a series of equal tempered semi-
tones, we make use of the method of comparing
one tone with another. Thus we have only to as-
certain the number of beats that are produced by
the members of various intervals in equal tem-
perament, beating against each other, and then to
tune these intervals by counting their beats.

Beats arise between coincident partial tones and
therefore if we lay out a series of intervals from
some given standard tone and calculate the co-
incident partial tones in each, we can by subtrac-
tion find out how many beats there are heard when
that interval is rightly tempered.^ Experience
shows that it is easiest to tune by Octaves, Fifths
and Fourths; by Fifths and Fourths for the Oc-
tave of tones, usually Fg — F3, chosen for the
** bearings" or foundation work and by Octaves up
and down thereafter. The other intervals in-
volved are best used for testing the correctness
of the work as it proceeds. Such testing is best

1 Compare Chapter II, "Coincident Partials," to find what par-
tials coincide in any interval.

86 Modern Piano Tuning.

done by means of major and minor Thirds and
major and minor Sixths, whose rates of beating in
equal temperament the tuner must therefore know.

Beats in Equal Tempered Intervals. The fol-
lowing Table (Table III) gives the number of beats
per second in the ascending minor Thirds, major
Thirds, Fourths, Fifths, minor Sixths and major
Sixths from each degree of the equal tempered
scale between Co and C^ inclusive. The rates are,
for purposes of convenience, made correct only
within .5 vibrations per second. In other words,
where an accurate calculation would show any
beat-rate as some whole number plus a decimal
greater than .5, the rate has been made the next
whole nuinber. For instance, 19.73 is counted as
20; while the same course has been adopted for
rates where the decimal correctly is less than .5.
For instance, 9.31 is made to read 9.5. On this
plan the error may be less than .1 or more than .4
vibrations per second. Inasmuch, however, as the
tuner will find his powers extended to the utmost
in estimating the beat-rates of Fourths and Fifths
at the figures given, and with this relatively large
error, it has been thought better to adopt this
course.

For suggestions as to counting beats and other

o •

03 ;^

CO lO

0>rtOC»00»0 0»00»OOOiOOO .

"dcdt-^t^t^QooooJmoo'i-HiM'cJcc'^ •

pH f—t rH r-l I— t rH i-H

o o lo o >c o >rt »o c o >c lo »o ic ire <c ic
Gc ci oi o o >-H ■-< oi CO Tt- •*' ic o t-^ c/i c o

00 lO

«5 00

CO (M

>n o o w ic o >o 1"^ c >c o in c lo c; c c o
Tf >« lO in m <» o «5 1>- 1>; oc cc c". c: c I-; e-i (N

ai O

ooinoiooiaoioooooiooococo

CO CO CO t>; t- CD 00 C5 C: O O ^ OJ (M CO Tj< IC O t^ CO

-* CO i-h' ^ r-I i-H ,-;,-; i-H r-J r-! ^ i-H

CO •*

lO -*

io_>-<ic lo inirt lo loio lOin

inincdcocdt-^t-^xodcJooO'-<'-Hc4co-^Tt<ioco

O ic

l«

lo m

t^t— OOOOOi0500'-i(N(MCO-^i.'5COt~CCCii— iF-HcaCO

COIC f-li-lr-l^i— l,-l>-l,-l^r-Hrtl-lCg(NC<l<M

IC CO

d
a)

coOl-^^-;0<qco^-(^alftTt;r^coo(^5»nc5eol>;lq^qOoq(^^eo_
o t~^ lo CO e4 (N N CO lo t^ o T)< oo TjJ o (--• lO lO lo 1--^ o ic o oc 1^-

(NCOT)HmcOt^COOOi— <C0Tt<l0t--C;O(M'^C0Q0i— iCOCCCO'-<
I— l,-(rt,— (^,-l>-ii— i(N(MlM(5qCNC<l(MCOCOeOeOCO'*"^Tt"'*lO

^2;

0.2

43 ^
u bo

o • xv ; xi. . :x^ .x^ . x\ : .x\ i^^ . .j=^ .x^ --^

O -Q -H • -O •<) -PQ . -Q -W ■ -O ■< •«

. ■ : : I ■ • I ■ I : : I • I :

88 Modern Piano Tuning.

practical matters of the same sort the following
chapters should be consulted.^

Use of the Table. I do not propose that the
tuner shall try to count accurately the beats per
second enumerated above; at least immediately.
But the special use of the Table is to provide a
model which will indicate closely enough the exact
amount of impurity in each interval as required
for equal temperament. This impurity is meas-
ured by the beat-rate instead of by first showing
what the ratios of impurity should be and then
proposing a rough approximation thereto to be
measured by tuning ** about so flat" or "about so
sharp." By giving definite beat-rates I make it
possible, as the next chapter will show, to tune
with unusual accuracy after a reasonable amount
of practice.

The immediate point is that the tuner should

1 The present table is founded on the comprehensive and ac-
curate work of J. C. Miller of Lincoln, Neb., U. S. A., an eminent
exponent of the noble art of tuning and a worker in science whose
unselfish labors for the benefit of his fellows can never be too
much admired. Calculated correct to six places of decimals and
with some supplementary matter, the Miller tables were pub-
lished in The Tuner's Magazine (Cincinnati), for December, 1914.
A less elaborate edition was published correct to two places of
decimals in the Music Trade Review (New York) during 1911,
and in the London Music Trades Remew (London), 1914. Those
who desire to obtain the complete figures may therefore have them
by consulting the publications mentioned.

Temperament. 89

know bow many beats per second eacb interval in
tbe equal temperament scbeme really involves, at
standard pitcb. Knowing tbis be knows wbat be
ougbt to do ; and if be can learn wbat be ougbt to
do, tban be can sooner learn bow nearly to attain
in practice to tbat ideal.

Wide and Narroiv Intervals. It only remains
to note wbicb intervals are to be widened and
wbicb narrowed in equal temperament tuning.
Tbe facts are simple and easily understood. Tbey
may be stated as follows :

An ascending series of twelve Fiftbs nominally
coincides witb an ascending series of seven Oc-
taves from tbe same notes. Actually tbe Fifth
series comes out sbarper tban tbe Octaves ; in tbe
ratio 531441 : 524288. Hence equal tempered
Fiftbs must be narrowed ; tbe amount of flatting in
eacb case being determined for tbe tuner by count-
ing tbe beats as set fortb in Table III.

An ascending series of twelve Fourtbs nominally
coincides witb an ascending series of five Octaves
from tbe same note. Actually tbe Fourtb series
comes out narrower tban tbe Octaves in tbe ratio
144 : 192. Hence, equal tempered Fourtbs must be
widened, tbe amount in eacb case being deter-
mined for tbe tuner by counting tbe beats.

90 Modern Piano Tuning.

Although we tune by Fourths and Fifths prefer-
ably, it is necessary to understand also the charac-
teristics of the other intervals. Thus :

Three ascending major Thirds nominally coin-
cide with an Octave but actually are short in the
ratio 125 : 128. Hence the major Thirds must be
widened in equal temperament, the amount thereof
in each case being determined as in Table III.

Four ascending minor Thirds nominally coin-
cide with one Octave but actually exceed it in the
ratio 1296 : 1250. Therefore they must be nar-
rowed in each case, the amount thereof being de-
termined for the tuner by counting the beats as
set forth in Table III.

In the same way we find that in Equal Tempera-
ment the major Sixths are all wide and the minor
Sixths narrow.

Increase in heat-rate. In the nature of the case,
the beats taking their origin from coincident par-
tials, and the ratio of pitch from octave to octave
being 1:2, it follows that the number of beats in
any interval doubles at each octave ascending and
halves at each octave descending. By suitable
multiplication and division therefore, the beat-rate
in any interval in any octave of the piano may be
obtained from Table III. It is worth while pans-

c .

..F

.11

c,.

..F,

.22

..F,

.45

Ca.

..Fa

.90

0,.

..F,

1.80

..F,

3.60

..Fe

7.20

Temperament. 91

ing here to note that the higher octaves comprise
intervals in which the beats are very rapid and
conversely the lower octaves have very slow beat-
ing intervals. Thus the ascending Fifth C — ¥
beats as follows, from the lowest C upwards :

V. p. s.
.1125 or a little more than 1 in 10 seconds,
or nearly 5 times in 20 seconds,
or nearly 5 times in 10 seconds,
or 9 times in 10 seconds.

or nearly 2 per second (18 times in 10 seconds),
or nearly 4 times per second (36 in 10 seconds).
or about 7 times per second (72 in 10 seconds).

The Fourths and Fifths Circle. My preferred
method of tuning is by a circle of Fourths and
Fifths. By the method noted on pp. 108-109,
Fourths and Fifths are alternated in such a way
that after the first descending Fifth has been
tuned, every note to he tuned is flatted, whether it
belong to a Fourth or Fifth. This is made pos-
sible by taking all the Fourths descending and all
the Fifths ascending, whereby Fourths can be
expanded and Fifths contracted in a continuous
process of flatting each note in turn; as will at
once be seen by glancing at the table mentioned
above. ^

Practical suggestions for tuning this circle ac-
cording to the beat-rate system will be found in

1 See pp. 108-109. '

92 Modern Piano Tuning.

the next chapter. The tones are taken in the
octave F2 — F3, around middle C, and the re-
mainder are tuned by octaves up and down. The
circle is known among tuners as "the bearings."

A note on the Scientific Method. This con-
cludes all that it is necessary to say about the
acoustical foundation of the system universally
employed throughout the Occident for the tuning
of musical instruments. The practical side of the
art is treated in the folloAving chapter. I should
not wish to conclude the present remarks, however,
without pointing out that I have treated the sub-
ject fully but not necessarily obscurely. In point
of fact one cannot explain the rationale of Equal
Temperament without going into considerable de-
tail. If the reader is content to do without the
explanations, and to accept Table III together
with the following chapter at their face value, he
may skip all that I have set forth in previous pages
and take my conclusions as stated. But if he
chooses any rapid road like this he will find that
rapid roads are often slippery, and he will miss
the satisfaction which comes from knowing ivhy
as well as how.

The attentive reader will discover nothing diffi-
cult in the method adopted here ; and the practical

Temperament. 93

tuner may be assured that the system of count-
ing beats set forth in this and following chapters
is not only quite practical but on the whole easier
than any other with which I am at present ac-
quainted, and which comes within the limited
range of practical requirements. As for accuracy,
there is no comparison between this and any sys-
tem founded on less exact reasoning.

A Note on Intonations. I should feel that this
book has fulfilled its object if it induces some
students to take up the study of Intonation in gen-
eral; by which I mean the study of the general
problem of expressing musical scales in practical
form. The Equal Temperament is a good servant
but a bad master ; and although the practical piano
tuner must, in present conditions, use it as it
stands, he cannot divest himself of a certain
amount of responsibility in the matter of its gen-
eral approval. For after all, tuners could do
something to prepare the world for a better sys-
tem if they wished to ; and if they knew that im-
provement is actually possible. What we need is
to realize that the Equal Temperament is a purely
artificial system resting upon a consent gained
rather on account of the absolute necessity for the
piano having it than for any fundamental musical

94 Modern Piano Tuning.

reason. To get sometliing better we need a
method which will either (1) allow more strings to
the octave or (2) will give us a mechanism capable
of making instant changes as required in the pitch
of given strings, so that modulation may be as
facile as it is now.^

Let it be understood however that Just Intona-
tion is an ideal to be striven for; and that tuners
should by all means make it their business to ac-
quaint themselves with the beauty and sweetness
of pure intervals, if only to remind themselves
that these really exist.

The scope of the present volume does not permit
me to go into detail as to experimental instru-
ments that have been made to give Just or nearly
Just Intonation, but I wish that every reader
would take the trouble to consult the admirable
discussion of this most interesting subject to be
found in Ellis ' 20th Appendix to the 3rd English
edition of Helmholtz. At the end of this book I
have ventured to give a short list of works which
the student who is desirous of pursuing his ac-
coustical and musical studies further, may con-
sult to his advantage.

1 Ono such system was worked (by Dr. TTapaman of Cincinnati)
some years ago, and one may hope that it may yet be heard of in
some commercial practicable form.

Chapter IV.

PRACTICAL TUNING IN EQUAL TEMPERAMENT.

After all tlie discussion that has gone before, we
have now to see how we may put our ideas into
practice. It is plain from what has been already
said that Equal Temperament is a perfectly simple
system and one admirably adapted to present
ideas and methods in musical composition and
the making of musical instruments. Until there
comes that change in public taste which demands
something finer, we shall have tempered pianos,
tempered orchestras and tempered intonation gen-
erally; with our ears more and more becoming
used to tempered sounds and unused to pure
sounds. It is therefore highly important not only
that the tuner should be thoroughly capable of do-
ing the very best work in temperament that can be
done, but also that he should make it his business
to realize every day and every hour that the work
he is doing is in reality a compromise with truth ;

96 Modern Piano Tuning.

necessary no doubt, but a compromise just the
same ; and one which exists solely because instru-
ments, musicians, and the public alike are un-
ready for anything better.

Recognising Just Sounds. In the circumstances
and considering the inherent difficulty of temper-
ing accurately by estimation of ear, I most ear-
nestly advise every student to practice the tuning
of pure Fifths, Fourths, and Thirds. Unisons
and octaves must be tuned pure anyhow, but most
tuners, in common with virtually everybody else,
are familiar only with the tempered form of the
other intervals and never dream of asking how
they sound when purely intoned. But in order to
recognize with any sort of accuracy the number of
beats per second that a tempered interval is gener-
ating, it is absolutely essential that one should be
acquainted with the true condition of that inter-
val ; familiar with its sound when evoked in purity.
Thus I would counsel every reader of this book to
form the habit of always tuning all intervals pure
and hearing them satisfactorily as such, before at-
tempting to temper them ; and also to get into the
equally valuable habit of tuning, for his own
amusement and satisfaction, series of pure chords
on the piano ; which of course can be done, so as to

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. 97

be satisfactory for one tonality and even capable
of being played in to that extent.

Measure of Purity. The measure of purity is
the absence of beats. If intervals whose ratios
of frequency are such as to avoid alternation in
phase-relations ^ are tuned on any instrument with
absolute accuracy, there will be no beats between
them. (I here purposely have omitted reference
to the ''beat-tones," otherwise known as resultant
or combinational tones, which are in reality gen-
erated by very rapidly moving beats from high
coincident partials in intervals that otherwise
would have no beats ; but these beat-tones are true
musical sounds and for the tuner's purpose need
not be considered in the present discussion ; espe-
cially as they are almost imperceptible on the
piano. ^) The fact, then, that no beats are heard
is a test quite accurate ; and the work of tuning is
immensely facilitated if the tuner is able to assure
himself when a condition of beatlessness exists, in-
stead of always being vague on this point.

1 See supra, Chapter II.

2 Tuners whose ears have attained a sufficient degree of delicacy,
and who are scientific enough to wish to go into the matter, may
consult Zahm, "Sound and Music," Tyndall "On Sound," Helm-
holtz, "Sensations of Tone." Beat-tones, as described best perhaps
by Koenig (quoted in Zahm), do of course afford a test of the
absolute purity of an interval.

98 Modern Piano Tuning.

Unison Tuning. The acquirement of a culti-
vated ear for purity of interval cannot better be
begun than by learning to tune unisons correctly.
Considering also that tuning of unisons comprises
about two-thirds of the work of tuning a piano,
since most of the tones are triple, and nearly all
the rest double, strung, it will be seen that this im-
portant part of the tuner's work deserves the most
careful attention. It is fortunate that the unison
is the simplest of intervals to comprehend and to
appreciate aurally. It is requisite in beginning
the study of tuning to ascertain with complete cer-
tainty the peculiarities of beats. Two tuning
forks tuned in unison and with one then slightly
loaded with a minute piece of wax, or other mater-
ial, afford a simple and easy experiment in beat
production.^ It will be useful to begin by making
such an experiment and listening carefully to the
beats until the peculiar rise and fall of the sound is
so plain that it can never again be mistaken. The
opposite experiment, made by removing the load
and returning the forks to complete unison, pre-
sents the sound of a perfect unison, with complete
absence of beats. It is also, by the way, interest-

iCf. Chapter II.

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament, 99

ing as providing an almost perfect form of simple
vibration, without partials.

To tune two piano strings in unison is not a very
difficult task if it be gone about rightly. In the
first place, it is well to listen carefully to the work
of a professional tuner, when the opportunity oc-
curs, with the object of noting by ear how he ad-
justs his unisons. A little practice will enable one
to hear instantly the difference between the beat-
ing tone of two strings which are out of tune with
each other and the pure continuous beatless sensa-
tion of tone developed when the unison is per-
fected. Having once obtained some facility in
thus cultivating the hearing, the student may ob-
tain a tuning hammer and attempt to do some prac-
tical adjustment of unisons.

Argument concerning the manipulation of the
hammer would at this stage be out of place, I feel,
for it would tend rather to confuse than to assist
the student.^ Let me then simply say that the
tuning hammer is to be placed on a tuning-pin
corresponding with one string of a triple unison.
Let one string of the triple unison be damped off,
leaving two to sound when the piano digital is

1 But see the next chapter.

100 Modern Piano Tuning.

struck. If the piano has not been tuned recently
the student will undoubtedly hear beats; and if
these are not distinct or frequent enough, let the
tension on the string be relaxed by turning the
pin slightly toward the left or bass end of the
piano. Now, let the reverse operation be under-
taken, and the hammer turned back towards the
operator, thus gradually tightening up the string
again. As this^ is done it will be observed, if the
digital is repeatedly struck, that the beats, which
at first we may suppose to have been quite fre-
quent, become slower and slower, until if the string
be rightly tuned, they disappear altogether, leav-
ing a pure continuous uninterrupted sound.

Practice. In beginning the work of learning
to tune pianos, it is advisable to practice for some
time in bursts of from fifteen to thirty minutes
each, on simple adjustment of unisons. The
manipulation of the hammer, of which I speak at
length in the next chapter, now, of course, begins
to claim attention ; but for the present it is enough
to say that the pin must be turned without wrench-
ing its outer end and without pulling downwards
on it. It is advisable to rest the arm and keep the
handle of the tuning hammer nearly vertical.

It will then be advisable to undertake settling

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. 101

the unisons of an entire piano, and not until this
has been accomplished is the student fit to take the
next step. It will be observed that whereas the
middle strings afford a comparatively simple task,
those of very low and very high frequencies alike
are more and more elusive; and careful practice
and listening are required before they can be mas-
tered. The measure of purity, be it remembered,
is absence of beats; and so long as beats can be
heard the unison is not pure.

Octave Tuning. The Octave is the unison
transposed. Hence Octave tuning is just as sim-
ple as unison tuning, in principle, and almost the
same in detail. The beats arising in a two-string
unison are between the fundamentals of two
sounds whilst in an Octave the beats are between
the 1st partial of the higher and the 2nd of the
lower ; the Octave proportion being 1 : 2 and the
coincident partials therefore being Nos, 2 and 1
respectively.^ Thus throughout the entire middle
portion of the piano anyhow, there will be very
little difficulty in tuning Octaves, once the student
has learned to adjust the unisons accurately, for
exactly the same beats are heard and the same
blending of the beats into a condition of beatless-

i Cf. Chapter II, pp. 67-68.

102 Modern Piano Tuning.

ness, as the Octave is perfected, until a perfect
, Octave is almost as complete a blend of sound as
an unison.

Exact Tests. In certain regions of the Piano
it is quite impossible to obtain certainty of Octave
tuning merely by estimating the extinction of beats
between the two members of the interval. In
the low bass particularly, the coarseness of the
strings and the almost inevitable impurity of their
intonation lead to the generation of all kinds of
false beats which confuse the student and are a
source of annoyance and inaccuracy even to the
expert. The student should of course practice
tuning Octaves throughout the entire compass, but
he will find that in the low bass he must have some
test for accuracy better than afforded by aural
comparison of the two members of the interval.
Fortunately, other tests are available, and each is
capable of giving highly correct results.

The Octave comprises a Fourth and a Fifth in
succession. A Fourth above Co runs to Fg and a
Fifth from that runs from Fo to C3. If now,
whilst tuning the octave Co — C:j (say) we sound
the Fourth G^—F^ and then the Fifth Fg— C3, and
find the beats in the Fourth equal in number to the
beats in the Fifth, the Octave is tuned accurately.

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. 103

This is so because all Fourths and Fifths in Equal
Temperament are distorted slightly so that the co-
incident partials are actually a little distorted
also. In the present case, the coincident partial is
C4, the 4th partial of C2, the 3rd of F2 and the 2nd
of C3.

The first octave test therefore is made by ascer-
taining the number of beats between the Fourth
above the lower sound and comparing these with
the beats in the Fifth below the upper sound.
If the beats are the same in number, then the oc-
tave is perfect. But, if the test is made between
lower Fifth and upper Fourth, then the upper
Fourth will beat twice as fast as the lower Fifth.

Minor 3rd and major 6th. For the lower re-
gions of the piano especially, but useful every-
where, is the test of the ascending minor Third
and descending major Sixth. If we are tuning,
for instance, from Co to C3, we try the minor Third
C2 — E flato and note its beat-rate. Then we try
the major Sixth E flato — C3 and try its beats. If
the beats in the two cases are equal in rate, then the
octave is tuned accurately. It will be observed
that this is the same idea set forth in the previous
paragraph. The E flat is the common tone, and
the minor Third and major Sixth are complemen-

104 Modern Piano Tuning.

tary. The coincident partial is the 6th of C2, the
5th of E flats and the 3rd of C^=G^. But if the
Sixth be the lower and the Third the upper, com-
plementary intervals used, the Third will beat
twice as fast as the Sixth.

Beat rates in Thirds and Sixths. It is well to
note in passing that as shown in the tables in Chap-
ter III (supra), the beats in. Thirds and Sixths,
major and minor, are considerably faster than in
Fourths and Fifths ; and the student after tuning
an octave may profitably examine the complemen-
tary Thirds and Sixths within that interval for the
purpose of studying their beat rates.

The Tenth test. A Tenth is an Octave plus a
major Third. A good octave test is to be found
here also by using the major under-Third and
Tenth. If tuning C2 to C3, test by the major un-
der-Tliird Co— A flatj as compared with the Tenth
A flati — C3. The coincident partial is the 5th of
A flatj, the 4th of Co and the 2nd of C3,=:C4. This
test is useful throughout the entire compass and
especially in the lower registers.

Observe that beat-rates, as shown by Table III
(Chapter III), vary as the frequencies of their
generators, so that the nearer we approach the
lower bass, the slower are all the beat-rates. In

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. 105

fact, the beat of the Fourths and Fifths cannot be
distinguished at all in the lower bass, and we have
to depend on Thirds and Sixths, It is very im-
portant of course, to know how many beats in a
second any given interval should have ; and Table
III supplies this requisite.

Counting Beats. The tuner, for practical pur-
poses, must count his beats by mere aural estima-
tion. The result is never perfectly accurate. It
is, however, the only method that can be used in
practical work, and the method, therefore, that
we must develop to the highest possible degree of
excellence. In the first place it will be noted that
Table III (Chapter III) gives the beat-rates ac-
curate only to within .5 of a beat per second. This
is simply because, although the error is mathema-
tically large, the human ear, at least with the
evanescent tones of the piano, cannot judge any
more delicately, and even then needs practice and
patience. It will usually be found that for ac-
curate work beat-rates of from 2 to 5 per second
are most easily counted. Above this is difficult;
below it is equally so. Beats of less than 1 per
second rate are hard to hear and keep track of.
However, the tuner may accustom himself to esti-
mating beat-rates by one or two simple methods.

106 Modern Piano Tuning.

■Seconds' Watch. Watchesi are usually provided
with seconds' hands and these usually make four
ticks per second. By listening carefully for say
ten minutes at a time, the student can soon learn
to hear accurately a beat-rate of 4 per second.
But the precise tick-rate of one's own watch must
be accurately determined.

Pendulum Clock. Pendulum clocks of the large
sort often have very slow swinging pendulums.
These sometimes produce one complete to and fro
swing (complete vibration) per second.

Pendulum. Ellis suggests (App. 20 to Helm-
holtz) , that the student may make himself a
pendulum from a piece of string and a curtain
ring, with provision for shortening or lengthening
the string readily. Now, for counting during any
length of time, as for instance 5 seconds, which is
a useful unit of time in counting beats of the
piano, we may arrange the length of the string as
shown below :

Length of string

from ieginning of Complete vihrationa

vibrating portion {to and fro)
to middle of ring

in inches: in 10 seconds in 5 seconds

O'/s 10 5

4% 15 71/2

27%6 6 3

It is important to note the manner of measuring, as above.

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. 107

These three beat rates are very important, es-
pecially the first and third, in the practical work
of tuning.

Other methods may suggest themselves to the
student. The perforated rotating disk to be found
in every high school physical laboratory can be
used also to give series of taps (by holding a card
against a circle of the perforations while the disk
is rotated), of any required speed.^

Of course the point is that the tuner ought not
to trust to guess work but should try to knoiv when
he hears a beat-rate what it really is. He can
learn to do this; and learn easily. By watching
and counting the swings of a pendulum such as
that described above he can soon learn to feel
the rate of swing; which is an exceedingly valu-
able accomplishment and one easy to acquire.
Certainly, it is impossible without some such train-
ing ever really to do distinguished work in the
most important and most difficult branch of tun-

1 The Metronome may likewise be used for the same purpose.
The beat-rate required is expressed in terms of beats per minute,
then multiplied by 2. The Metronome is set at the resulting figure,
and every alternate tick only is counted. Or if a bell is fitted to
the Metronome and set to sound on every alternate tick, the re-
sult is still better. Thus: 3 beats in 5 seconds = 36 beats per
minute. Set Metronome at 72 and make bell sound on alternate
ticks. The rate of 3 in 5 seconds will thus be given. The sug-
gestion is due to Mr. August Reisig of New Orleans.

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110 Modern Piano Tuning.

ing pianos; that which is called "laying the bear-
ings," and which we must now consider.

Laying the Bearings. The scheme already laid
out (Chapter III, supra), for tuning the central oc-
tave in Fourths and Fifths forms the basis of the
explanations now to be made : Reproducing this in
type and appending the beat-rate as ascertained
for each interval from Table III and the frequency
as given in Table I, we get Table IV, pages 108-9.

There are two observations to be made imme-
diately. The first is that although the Table
shows 36 steps, only 13 notes are actually tuned,
and the remaining steps show tests made by in-
tervals and chords generated during the progress
of the tuning. These test intervals and chords are
of the utmost importance, just as important as
any other element of the work, inasmuch as they
afford a complete measure of the correctness of
the tuner's progress. But the actual tuning is
confined to the series of Fourths and Fifths shown.

The second is that to count beats at something
very close to these rates is not impossible by any
means. I counsel the student to realize that any
definite method like this has the inestimable ad-
vantage of being founded on fact. What is more
to the. point, such a method leads to that much

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperament. Ill

closer accuracy which should distinguish masters
of the art.

Variations in pitch for practical tuning. The
figures given are sufficiently accurate for any pitch
between C 258.65 and C 264, which range covers
the common variations as found in modern pianos.
In strict fact, any rise in pitch above the Inter-
national C 258.65 involves a progressive rise in
beat-rate. But the amount of increase is too small
for practical purposes ; usually at least.

Importance of Accuracy. Of course I can-
not too strongly urge the importance of accuracy,
of not being content to do things fairly well or
even reasonably well; but of insisting to the ut-
most upon the possibility of doing ever and ever
more accurate, more scientific and more complete,
work. Tables III and IV do represent the ut-
most in accuracy, probably; and the figures given
in these Tables can be attained by those who will
practice the Art of Tuning with patient devotion.
The Artist will attain them. May every reader of
this book earnestly strive for that perfection.

Methods of Using Tests. The test Thirds and
Sixths, and the test triads are to be used constantly
throughout the work. Observe carefully the rise
in beat-rate of the ascending Thirds and Sixths.

112 Modern Piano Tuning.

This rise must be accurately measured. It will
be found, of course, that the beat-rate doubles in
each octave and the extreme Thirds should show
this progress. No better test of the accuracy of
the bearings can be found. It is not sufficient to
* ' come out right, ' ' by which is meant, to arrive at
the last step and find the final octave reasonably
clear. It is necessary that every step should be
right. This means care, patience, study; which
lead to mastery.

Tuning from the Bearings. From the Bearings
the tuning proceeds by octaves and unisons ac-
cording to the methods laid down and explained
in the earlier part of this chapter. The student is
again warned to look out that his octave tuning
does not begin to slide off from accuracy by the
accumulation of imperceptible into intolerable er-
rors ; and to this end the constant use of the vari-
ous tests already explained, as well as of double
octaves and triads, is recommended.

Obtaining required Temperament in intervals.
Lastly, let me say again that the only way to tune
intervals so that their beat-rates are reasonably
accurate is first to tune them pure and then to
make the necessary correction up or down. It is
impossible in any other way to acquire true deli-

Practical Tuning in Equal Temperaments. 113

cacy of ear. No other method will produce the re-
quired results. This is an immensely important
truth and covers one of the most neglected ele-
ments in the art. The rule of tuning all intervals
pure before proceeding to temper, is essential ; and
the student ought early to achieve this habit. The
mere fact that Equal Temperament is an artificial
mathematical compromise, should in itself be suf-
ficient to persuade the tuner that this view is
sound, especially when the reasons adduced at
the beginning of this chapter are recalled. Until
one knows practically the true beauties of Pure
Intonation, the almost equally strong virtues and
vices of Equal Temperament will in neither case
be duly appreciated.

Any one who has had the privilege of listening
to a first-rate string quartet or to a really good
unaccompanied chorus, will understand why pure
intonation, once recognized, is ever after treas-
ured in memory.

Chapter V.

MECHANICAL TECHNIQUE OF TUNING.

The art of tuning tlie piano comprises two dis-
tinct and separate elements. That part of our
education as tuners which relates to the science of
the art has already been discussed in full in the
previous chapters. We must now consider what
may be called the general mechanical technique of
the art, including the special subject of the tools
required and their manipulation.

The Raw Material. The raw material with
which the tuner works may be described for prac-
tical purposes as consisting of the string, the
wrest-pin or tuning-pin, the wrest-plank or pin-
block, and the tuning hammer. The piano action,
the digitals, the wedges for damping strings, and
the tuning-fork may alike be considered for the
present, as accessory to, rather than as part of,
the essential material. Let us consider these in
their order.

String Conditions. It is well known, of course,

114

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 115

that the pitch of a string — that is to say, its fre-
quency of vibration — varies as the square root of
its tension. Hence, if the tension be increased,
the frequency is increased likewise; whilst if the
tension be relaxed, the pitch is lowered. Now, the
tension of a string is increased by tightening it on
its pin ; that is by turning the pin so as to stretch
the string more tightly. The relaxation of tension
is achieved in precisely the opposite way ; that is,
by releasing the string somewhat.

String and Pin. The piano string is wound so
that the pin lies, as seen from the front, to its right,
on an upright piano and to its left on a grand. But
actually the positions are the same, and the differ-
ence stated is due to the different position from
which we view the strings on an upright and a
grand respectively. It would be better to say that
the string is always on the treble side of the pin
in a horizontal and on the bass side in an upright
piano. When the tuner wishes to raise the pitch
of a string he turns the pin so as to wind up the
string on it. To lower the pitch he turns the pin
so as to unwind the string.

The mechanical problem therefore is to turn the
pins in the wrest-planh in such a way as to adjust
the pitch of each string to the requirements of the

116 Modern Piano Tuning.

Equal Temperament at the standard of pitch
agreed on.

The Elements. In following chapters, I give a
general description of piano construction and
necessarily include remarks on the functions of all
the parts herein mentioned. In the present chap-
ter, however, I shall treat these only with relation
to the tuner's work.

The String. The piano string varies in length
inversely as its pitch and may be from 2 inches
to 80 inches long, according to its position in the
scale and the size of the piano. Steel music wire
is used, varying in diameter from .03" to .06".
The lower strings are wound with steel or copper
overwinding or covering. The tension at which
the strings are stretched varies within the limits of
100 and 275 pounds ; but it would be fair to name
as an average range of tension per string in mod-
ern pianos 150 to 160 pounds, although there is
much inequality as to details.

Bearing. The opposite end of the string is
passed around a hitch pin in the iron frame. In
order to transmit its vibrations to the sound-board
the string passes over a wooden bridge provided
with double raked pins, so as to give it a side
bearing. At the end near the tuning pin the string

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 117

passes over a wooden or iron bearing bridge which
determines the upper, as the sound^board bridge
determines the lower, extremity of its vibrating
length. This upper bridge gives an up and down
bearing to the string. It is important that these
points be kept in mind and the student carefully
study the construction upon an actual piano;
which I am presuming he has at hand.

The Pin Block. The torsional stress on the pin
being what it is, considering the high tension at
which the string is commonly stretched, it follows
that efficient means are required for the main-
tenance of the pin in a given position under this
stress. The common method is to drive the pins
into a wooden block called the wrest-plank or pin-
block; which is built up by cross-banding several
strips of hard wood. Such a block, when drilled
for the reception of the tuning pins at right angles
to the plane of the banding, gives an exceedingly
stiff bedding, for the cross-grained strips present
alternately end-grain and cross-grain, making a
structure which interposes a very great frictional
resistance to the rotative movement of the pin. It
is the frictional resistance which is responsible
for the pin holding its position, and hence for the
string remaining at a given tension.

118 Modern Piano Tuning.

The Tuning-Pin. The tuning-pin is a stout steel
rod almost uniform in diameter from end to end,
and threaded with a light fine thread. One ex-
tremity is bluntly pointed and the other is squared
off to receive the tuning-hammer and pierced for
the insertion of the end of the string. It is custo-
mary to wrap the string around the pin in three or
four coils.

The Bridges. The sound-board bridges carry
the strings between pins set at an angle to each
other, in such a way that each string is diverted
from its line of direction and carried on from the
bridge to the hitch-pin on a line parallel with the
original line. The side-bearing thus given to the
string is intended to ensure its tightness and
steadiness on the bridge.

The upper bearing bridge sometimes is in the
form of a separate stud or ''agraffe" for each
string, and sometimes consists of a ledge cast in
the plate over which the string passes, to be forced
down into a bearing position by a heavy pressure
bar screwed over it. The object is to give bearing
to the string. The ''capo-d 'astro" bar is simply
the pressure-bar arrangement cast in one piece.
The student will be well advised to study all these
constructions on the piano at first hand.

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 119

The Tuning -Hammer. The tuning-hammer,
with which the actual turning of the pin is accom-
plished, is a steel rod carrying a head bored to
receive the pin. The hammer is placed on the pin.
which is turned by pressure of the hand on the
hammer handle in the required direction. There
are many interesting points about the manipula-
tion of the hammer, however, which must now be
considered.

The mechanical problem relates to the turning
of a pin acting under a combined tensional and
torsional strain; in other words a pin which is
being simultaneously pulled down, and twisted
around. If the wrest-plank is well made, the pin
will resist successfully both of these strains and
when turned by the hammer will retain its new
position. But in order that this should be so it is
necessary to acquire a certain technique of manip-
ulation.

Manipulating the Hammer. The implement
used for turning the pins and known as the tuning-
hammer is, by its very shape, susceptible of wrong
use. It presents the constant temptation to
manipulate it as if it were a wrench. The resist-
ance that the pin and string impose against turn-
ing is sufficiently great to cause the novice nearly

120 Modern Piano Tuning.

always to twist and wrench at the pin in the effort
to turn it. Now, it must be remembered that the
distance through which the pin is turned is so very
slight that where it has been tightly driven, or
presents any other obstacle to free turning, the
hammer nearly always gives too hard a twist or
pull, so that the pin, after sticking, turns too far.
In an upright piano the tuner stands in front of
the pins, which are about on a level with his chest,
and his natural inclination of course will be to pull
downwards and outwards on the pins whilst at-
tempting to turn them, in such a way as to drag
the lower surface of the pin against the bushing
in the plate and so gradually wear away the bush-
ing and the wrest-plank hole and finally loosen the
pin altogether. In order to overcome these possi-
ble faults, the student will have to work out his
own method of manipulation, bearing in mind al-
ways that his object is to turn the pin and not
merely bend it. If he merely bends it he may al-
ter the string tension enough to change the pitch
as desired ; but a smart blow on the piano key will
soon knock the string back again where it was be-
fore. That is why young tuners do not tune
** solidly." They do not turn the pins; they
merely bend them. I shall offer the following sug-

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 121

gestions regarding the general handling of the
piano in tuning, out of my own experience, with
the understanding that I do not put them forth as
rules, but only as notions which have been found
practical in one man 's work.

1. Length of Hammer. Other things being
equal, the experience of the best tuners points to
the use of a short handled hammer, instead of a
long one. I prefer a handle not more than 12
inches long.

2. Position of Hammer. The hammer should be
held nearly vertical when tuning upright pianos,
and it is well to rest the arm, as this tends to give
better leverage.

3. Turning the Pin. In attempting to turn the
pin, do not jerk the hammer back and forth, nor
on the other hand, use it like a wrench, but rather
try to turn the pin by gently impelling it in the de-
sired direction, feeling it all the time under the
hand and avoiding the mistake of pulling down on
the pin whilst turning it in the sharp direction.

4. Use of Left Hand, in upright piano. The
best way of making sure that the pin is not pulled
downwards whilst the string is being sharped is
to hold the tuning hammer in the left hand. The
pin is then raised in the process of sharping ; which

122 Modern Piano Tuning.

is as it should be. In any case, the hammer should
be held vertical, or still better, inclining slightly
over to the bass side. The above applies to the
upright piano only.

5. And in Grand Pianos. In a grand piano, to
tune with the right hand is best on account of the
position of the tuner with relation to the strings ;
which is opposite to the position with reference to
the upright. But the highest treble strings, on ac-
count of the peculiar construction of the grand
piano, are most conveniently tuned with the ham-
mer held in the left hand.

6. Tuning Pure Intervals First. All intervals
that are to be tempered should be first tuned pure
and then raised or lowered.^ Other things being
equal, it is better to tune slightly above the re-
quired pitch and let the string slack back; which
can be assisted by a smart blow on the key. Coax-
ing the string up to pitch usually involves its slack-
ing off as soon as the piano is played.

7. Strings Hanging on Bridges. Strings often
hang on the belly bridge and on the upper bearing.
The waste ends at either extremity sometimes
cause this trouble. The tuner must acquire the
habit of so tuning that the string is pulled evenly

1 See page 96.

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 123

through its entire length, from tuning-pin to hitch-
pin, maintaining the tension of all its sections uni-
form. To be sure that the pin is thoroughly
turned gives the best assurance that the above re-
quirement has been fulfilled.

8. '^ Pounding" Condemned. I do not believe
in brutally pounding on the keys of a piano in an
effort to "settle the strings." It is quite uncer-
tain how much the strings can be * ' settled ' ' in any
way like this ; and the process is objectionable in
every other way.

9. Muting. The simplest way of muting the
strings is by using a long strip of felt to stop off
the outside strings of the triples and the alternate
strings of the doubles, from one end of the piano
to the other, before the tuning begins. Then the
temperament Octave may be tuned on the middle
string of each note and the Octaves up and down
therefrom; after which the outside strings of the
Unisons may be tuned all together. If however
for any reasons such as those mentioned below,
this causes the piano to stress unevenly, the Uni-
sons can be adjusted section by section.

10. Position at the piano. All things considered
it is better to stand up to tune all pianos, even
grand pianos. The practice of sitting to tune up-

124 Modern Piano Tuning.

right pianos is certainly to be condemned, as it
leads to slovenly handling of the hammer and
general slackness.

11. Raising Pitch. In raising the pitch of a
piano, go over it at least twice, the first time
roughly, the second time smoothly. If the amount
of rise required is very great the piano will need
three tunings at once and another shortly after.
Arrangements should be made with the owner of
the piano in accordance with the extra amount
of work to be done.

12. On Old Pianos. Raising the pitch on old
pianos is always risky, as strings are likely to
break. In emergencies, rust may be treated, at
the upper bearing bridge and hitchpins, sparingly
with oil. But oil is only to be used in emergencies,
and with the utmost care to see that it does not
reach the wrest-plank or soundboard bridges.

13. Lowering Pitch. In lowering the pitch, not
less than three tunings will be required usually.
This work is even more delicate than the above
and needs even more care. The first tuning
should be merely a rough letting down. Then
the second may be a rough, and the third a smooth,
tuning. But it is well to have an interval of a
day between the second and the third tunings.

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 125

14. Gang Mute. Even if a felt strip for a whole
section is not used, it is advisable to have the
entire temperament Octave wedged up whilst tun-
ing it, so as not to have to disturb Unisons after
they have been tuned. It is usually necessary
to make various corrections in the temperament
Octave as it is being tuned.

15. Uniform Pitch. Uniformity of pitch is a
desideratum. Every tuner should have an inter-
national pitch guaranteed fork, kept carefully in
a felt-lined box and carefully guarded from rust.
Tune to this pitch whenever possible. But do not
make the mistake of trying to adjust all pianos to
one pitch. It cannot be done.

16. Theatre Pianos. In tuning pianos for use
in theatres with orchestras, it is advisable usually
to tune a few audible beats above the pitch of the
instrument which is used as a standard. This in-
strument is usually the clarinet or cornet (in sym-
phony orchestras, the oboe), which rises in pitch
as it warms in the course of playing.

17. False Beats. The worst single enemy the
tuner has is the string with false beats. In a
good piano factory such strings are taken out and
replaced before the piano leaves the premises.
Sometimes faults in the scale, and especially the

126 Modern Piano Tuning.

fault of uneven tension, make for strings that
beat when sounded alone. This beating arises
through sections of the strings being unevenly
stressed, whereby the corresponding partial tones
are thrown out of tune. Such uneven stress may
be the result of a twist put in the wire during the
stringing, or of uneven thickness of the wire.
When false beats are encountered, sometimes the
tuner will find he can neutralize the beats by tun-
ing the string slightly off from the other two of
the triple. If no such expedient will work, then
the strings must be left alone. Such false beats
are especially to be found in the upper treble.

18. Bass Tuning. The real fundamental tones
of the lowest strings are not actually heard. We
hear instead upper partials thereof. Hence it is
very often impossible to tune bass octaves by mere
audition of beats between coincident partials. In
this condition of affairs the tuner may tune by
testing the Tenths, which is a good plan, or by
isolating some partial and testing it with the cor-
responding note above. To tune a clear bass is
sometimes impossible.^

19. Test Intervals. All the tests recommended
in the previous chapter should be used constantly

1 Cf. the discussions in Chapters II, III and IV.

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 127

during the progress of the work, for the tuning
will not be good otherwise. The most prolific
source of imperfection lies in the accumulation
of exceedingly slight errors; which soon mount
up to intolerable mistunings. Constant testing,
note by note, is therefore absolutely essential.

20. Sharp Treble. The temptation to tune the
treble tones too high is one constantly to be
avoided, for it is constantly present. Careful
testing will alone rid the tuner of this error, which
is insidious and habit-forming.

21. Lastly: Not twenty, but a hundred and
twenty, rules or suggestions like these could easily
be laid down ; but I prefer to leave the subject here.
The student will learn at least one more : the value
of Patience.

''Style." The student will also determine for
himself, as time goes on, the characteristics of
what may be called his special ''style." Tuning
is an art and one which suffers more through
being misunderstood than through any other
single condition. The fine tuner is an artist in
every sense of the word and the mental charac-
teristics he must possess are such as not every-
body can hope to have.

Understanding and Patience. Understanding

128 Modern Piano Tuning.

and Patience are the foundation of the tuner's art
and for my part I am not sure to which of these
qualities I should award the primacy. Certainly
it is true that without Understanding the tuner is
groping in the dark ; whilst without Patience he is
already condemned in advance to failure in the
attempt to do artistic work.

Experience. Experience too, is vastly impor-
tant. The most talented student of the art finds
that there is a mechanical technique to be mas-
tered in tuning, just as in playing the piano. The
necessary delicacy of wrist and arm, the neces-
sary intuitive feeling that the pin has been turned
as it should be; the necessary exquisite delicacy
of ear : ^ all these faculties are the product of
patient experiment and practice. The novice can-
not expect to possess them; nor can he have any
reason for being disappointed when he finds, as
he will find, that to gain anything worth gaining,
one must work — and work hard.

1 "Delicacy" here means rather "power of discrimination" than
mere intuition. What is usually called a "musical ear" is noth-
ing more than, at best, a feeling of tonality sometimes extending
so far as unaided recognition of individual tones and tonalities on
hearing them; and at worst, an inclination towards simple mel-
ody, harmonically bare. Tlie tuner's audition is acoustical, not
artificially musical. The ordinary "musical car" is of little value
to him.

Mechanical Technique of Tuning. 129

< t

'Playing the Game." Still, it also remains
that when one does take the trouble to play the
game as it must be played, the reward is certain
— and by no means contemptible; even when
measured by mere money, the lowest of standards.
On the whole, good tuners are as scarce to-day as
they were fifty years ago. The tuning of every
day is not good, usually; and the artistic tuner
will find a hearty welcome, and adequate compen-
sation, almost anywhere.

Finally: All that can be taught by a book I
have here set forth. But mastery comes only
through experience, combined with patient study
and application. Various matters incidental to
the art which do not come within the scope of
*' tuning" proper are treated in the following
chapters of this book.

Chapter VI.

THE MODERN PIANO.

Scope of this Chapter. The piano is the most
familiar of musical instruments and one of the
most accessible for purposes of examination. In
the following pages, I shall assume that the reader
has a piano at hand and will follow me through-
out, with it as a model. Such a method will be
found more satisfactory than if I asked the stu-
dent to follow me with the aid merely of a few
illustrations. I shall not undertake any critical
examination of the details of piano construction,
for this is the province of a special technical
treatise,^ but shall confine myself to describing the
features of the modern piano in a manner cal-
culated to be of the greatest assistance to the
tuner and repair man.

An Instrument of Percussion. The piano is a
stringed instrument; and to this extent belongs

1 "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building," by the present
writer.

130

The Modern Piano. 131

to the same general family as the violin. But its
strings are excited by blows inflicted directly by
a hammer and indirectly, through a mechanism
called the '^ action," by the performer's hand.
Hence the piano is also an instrument of percus-
sion and belongs to the same general family with
the dulcimer, the xylophone and the drums. This
last fact is of great importance, for it is impossi-
ble to understand the peculiarities of the piano
unless we entirely forget its incidental likeness
to other stringed instruments and concentrate our
ideas upon the outstanding fact of percussion as
the cause of the sounds evoked by it.

Upon the fact that the strings are violently
struck, instead of being bowed or plucked, rests
the entire character of the piano, making any com-
parison of it with the violin or other stringed in-
strument absurd. This is especially true with
regard to the sound-board.

Three Elements. The piano proper comprises
three elements ; the scale, the sound-board and the
hammer-action. All other parts are entirely in-
cidental and accessory.

Scale. The scale of the piano consists essen-
tially of the set of strings which are struck by the
hammers. There are eighty-eight digitals in the

132 Modern Piano Tuning.

key-board of the piano and thus eighty-eight sepa-
rate tones. The strings are grouped three to an
unison throughout some five octaves of the range,
and thence in double grouping (2 to a note) down-
wards to the lowest bass. The last ten or twelve
at the lowest bass extreme are usually single
strings.

Now it will be understood that the strings of
the piano increase in length and weight as the
scale descends. The highest note on the piano
(C7) is evoked by a string some 2 inches long, and
this length rather less than doubles at each oc-
tave descending, until the lengthening process is
brought to a stop at the size limits of the piano.
This lengthening increases the weight of the de-
scending strings until at about five octaves below
C7, it becomes necessary to shorten the remain-
ing strings between this point and the extreme
bass on account of the size limits mentioned above.
The requisite slowness of vibration therefore must
be had by over-weighting the shortened strings;
which is done by covering them with iron or cop-
per wire. This covered section is usually strung
cross-ways over the treble strings and is there-
fore called the overstrung section.

Now the immediate point is that the main-

The Modern Piano. 133

tenance of this enormous mass of steel wire
stretched tightly between fixed points and cap-
able of withstanding the hardest blows of the
hammers, means that (1) the tension at which
each string is stretched must be high and (2) that
in consequence, an elaborate structure must be
provided for the purpose of supporting this mass
under this high tension. The pull on each string
averages not less than 160 pounds, taking mod-
ern pianos by and large, although I consider this
too high for the best tonal results. The total
tensional strain therefore is not less than 35,000
pounds on the average; and this strain must be
borne by the supporting structure.

Upright Piano; Plate and Bach. The support-
ing structure in the upright piano consists of (1) a
relatively thin plate or frame of metal backed by
a decidedly heavy and massive framing of wood.
The shape and dimensions of the plate vary with
the size of the piano and the peculiarities of the
individual scale plan. The back consists of three
or more wooden posts crossed at top and bot-
tom by heavy planks. The top plank is faced
on the surface nearest the strings by a specially
prepared wooden block or '^wrest-plank" into
which are driven the tuning-pins which fasten the

134 Modern Piano Tuning.

upper extremities of the strings and wluch the
tuner turns when adjusting the pitch of the piano ;
''tuning the piano" as we say.

The iron plate covers the front of this massive
wooden back, and the sound-board is fastened to
the back with the iron plate over it.^

Grand Piano: Plate and Back. The support-
ing structure of the grand piano is somewhat dif-
ferent. In the upright the sides and the casing
generally are simply attached to the fundamental
structure known as the back. But in the grand
piano the whole case is glued around a rim of cross
banded veneers which in turn encloses another
rim, into which runs the system of braces and
struts which comprises what corresponds to the
upright back and on which sound-board and plate
are laid.

First-hand study of pianos in grand and upright
form will reveal all these matters to the student
clearly.

Sound-Board and Bridges. The sound-board
of the piano is the resonating apparatus which
amplifies and modifies the string-sounds, so as
to endue them with the characteristics of piano

1 The method of gluing the souiid-board to the back and all
similar technical details may be found described in my "Theory
and Practice of Pianoforte Building."

The Modern Piano. 135

tone. It is an open question how much influence
the sound-board exercises in the development of
tone. My own theory has been for long that the
sound-board is a true vibrator and the direct
producer of the piano tone; and that the string
acts rather as the selector, imposing upon the
board the particular wave-form which its own vi-
bration evokes.^

From the tuner's point of view, the chief pres-
ent interest of the sound-board lies in its physical
character and its behavior under use. Even a
cursory examination of the sound-board and of
the bridges which cross it carrying the strings,
indicates clearly that two essential conditions
must exist if the board is to perform its resonat-
ing duty well. The strings must be maintained
on an adequate up-bearing and side-bearing,
whilst the board must be in a state of tension.
The board must be resilient, but also stiff, in a
sense. It must be arched upwards to maintain
itself against the immense down pressure of the
strings, but also it must be built so that the neces-
sary arching will have no injurious effect upon
the wood-fibres, with consequent splitting or crack-

1 This matter is further treated in the following chapter. Cf.
also, "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building," pp. 58 et seq,

136 Modern Piano Tuning.

ing. It will easily be seen then that the sound-
board of the piano is a structure of exceeding deli-
cacy, called upon to perform difficult and labori-
ous duties.

The strings are carried over the sound-board
on two wooden bridges, one for the overstrung
bass and one for the remaining strings. It is
customary to construct these bridges of cross-
banded hard maple veneers, to avoid splitting.
The strings in their passage across the bridges are
given side-bearing by means of suitably driven
pins. These bridges are glued on to the sound-
board and secured from the back thereof by means
of screws.

Ribs. The sound-board is ribbed with strips
of the same lumber (spruce) which is used for
the body of the board. The object of ribbing is

(1) to facilitate the impartation of a proper curve,
or arch (called usually the *^ crown") to the board,

(2) to impart tension to the board and (3) to
strengthen it against the string-pressure. Ribs
are usually 12 to 14 in number and cross the board
diagonally, from the top of the treble to the bot-
tom of the bass, side.

The above description applies equally well to
grand or upright pianos.

The Modern Piano. 137

Hammers. The strings of the piano are excited
by blows inflicted on them by what are called
* 'hammers." The hammer consists of a molded
wooden head covered with a special kind of felt,
and varying in size and thickness from treble to
bass, the heaviest hammers being of course those
in the bass. Postponing a complete technical dis-
cussion of the piano hammer for a later chapter
we may here remark that important considera-
tions are the position of the hammer with refer-
ence to the point at which each string is struck,
and the nature of the mechanism whereby the
performer translates his desires into mechanical
action upon the hammer.

''Touch." All that which is known by the gen-
eral name of "touch" in relation to the playing
of the piano means, ultimately, control of the
piano hammer. A great deal of confusion on the
part of tuners, not to mention musicians and the
lay public, would be altogether swept away if
only it were realized that in piano playing the
control of the string's vibration, which of course,
means control of the wave-form and hence of the
sound-board vibration, and hence lastly of the
volume and quality of the tone, is entirely a mat-
ter of the hammer. The weight of the hanuner.

138 Modern Piano Tuning.

the nature of its material as to density, etc., and
the arc of travel through which it turns, together
with its velocity, are the controlling factors in tone
production. This turning of the hammer in
obedience to the depression of the piano key is the
province of what is called the ^'Action" of the
piano.

Action. The '* action" of the piano is the
mechanism interposed between hammer and per-
former. It consists essentially of a set of digitals
or finger-keys, one for each tone in the compass of
the piano, and an equal number of lever-systems,
consisting of levers turning in arcs of circles, one
to each key, operating the hammer. When the
key is depressed, the hammer is thrown forward,
trips before it touches the string, is carried to the
string by its own momentum, and instantly re-
bounds. The string is allowed to vibrate so long
as the key is depressed.^

Damper Action. The so-called "damper" is a
piece of molded wood faced with soft felt, which
presses against the string, but is lifted away
therefrom as soon as the key is depressed. The
damper allows the string to vibrate freely until

1 Cf. Chapter VITI for complete discussion of these points.

The Modern Piano. 139

the key is released, when it at once falls back on
the string and silences it.

For the purposes of artistic piano playing, how-
ever, it is necessary very often to take advantage
of the sympathetic resonance of the sound-board
by allowing the tone emitted by one or several
string-groups to be strengthened, colored and
otherwise enriched by the simultaneous sounding
of other strings whose fundamentals are true par-
tials to the originally sounded strings. When the
entire line of dampers is lifted from the strings
and held away from them by suitable mechanism,
this property of the sound-board comes into play,
and the warm color thus imparted to the tone con-
stitutes one of the most valuable elements in piano
playing.

In order to permit this advantage, the line of
dampers is adapted to be pushed back from the
strings (or in the grand piano, lifted up from
them) by means of a rod actuated by a simple
lever system which terminates in a ''pedal" op-
erated by the right foot of the performer. This
lever system is called the "trap-work" of the
piano and is situated under the keyboard in the
grand piano, with the pedals arranged in a frame-

140 Modern Piano Tuning.

work known as the *'lyre"; whilst in the upright
the pedal and trap-work are placed at the bottom
of the piano on what is called the '' bottom-board."
The pedal is convenient to the performer's right
foot and is called the "sustaining pedal"; some-
times, wrongly, the "loud pedal."

Soft-Pedal. In the grand piano the keys and
action are put together on a frame which can slide
transversely. By depression of a second pedal
the action is slid towards the treble, so that each
hammer strikes only two strings of each triple,
and one of each double, group. The effect is to
soften the tone and modify its color. Similar
trap-work is used between pedal and action, placed
alongside the sustaining pedal action. The sec-
ond pedal is placed conveniently to the per-
former's left foot and is called the "soft
pedal. ' '

In the upright piano the arrangement is the
same except that instead of shifting the action,
the hammers are pushed forward closer to the
strings by a rod which rotates the rail against
which the hammer-shanks rest.

Sostenuto or tone-sustaining pedal. On grand
pianos, and occasionally on uprights, is to be
found a third pedal situated between the other two

The Modern Piano. 141

and arranged to hold up dampers which are al-
ready lifted by the action of the performer in play-
ing on the keys ; and to hold them up as long as de-
sired. A rod is rotated when the pedal is de-
pressed, which catches against felt tongues on
any dampers that may have been raised, and holds
them up. So if the performer wishes to sustain
a chord after his fingers have quitted the keys, he
depresses this pedal after he has struck the keys
and allows the strings to vibrate accordingly un-
til the pedal is released.

Middle pedals in upright pianos are sometimes
arranged for the same purpose, and sometimes
lift the bass section of dampers. Sometimes they
operate a ''muflBer," being a strip of felt that can
be thrown between the hammers and the strings
for the purpose of '' muffling" the sound. This
is useful for practice purposes.

Case Work. The case of the upright piano con-
sists of the following parts :

Sides : Glued on to the sides of the back.

Arms: Extending from sides to support key-
bed.

Key-Bed : Upon which the key- frame is laid.

Toes : Extending from bottom of sides to sup-
port Trusses.

142 Modern Piano Tuning.

Trusses : Resting on Toes and holding up key-
bed. Sometimes called the '4egs."

Fall-Board: The folding lid over the keys.
The double folding type is now usual and is called
the "Boston" fall-board. The older type or
single lid is called the "New York" fall-board.

Shelf: Laid over fall-board to support music.

Name-Board: Eesting over keys to support
single type fall-board.

Key-slip: Strip in front of keys.

Key-Blocks: Heavy blocks at each extremity
of keyboard.

Top-Frame: Folding or fixed frame, often
elaborately decorated, which supports music and
conceals piano action and hammers.

Bottom-Frame: Similar frame to the above,
covering trapwork and parts of piano under key-
bed.

Pilasters : Decorative pillars sometimes placed
on either side of top-frame to support it.

Top: The folding lid which covers top frame
and finishes off the casework of the piano.

Bottom-Rail: Rail running across the bottom
of the casework, in which the pedals are housed.

Bottom-Board: Board on which trap work is
mounted, behind the bottom-frame.

The Modern Piano.

143

Names of External Parts. Although the piano
is such a familiar article there is a great deal of
confusion as to the names to be applied to its

Figure 15,

1. Top.

2. Side.

3. Pilaster.

4. Top Frame,
6, Shelf.

6. Arm.

7, Key-Block,

8. Key-Slip.

9. Key-Bed.

10. Bottom Frame.

11. Bottom Rail.

12. Toe.

13. Truss.

14. Fall Board.

22 j
21-

[)riJiiiiiiiiiiiiiii(iiiiiiiiiJiJiiiiiiiiii!!iiiii(iiiiiiiani)i))iii!)ifiiii[iH^^^^^

^ijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini/jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiimimnniiiimiii I i m «i,

jiiiiSH iniiininiiiHiiii

III I I I I I I I I I ( M I I I I I I M I M r I I I I I II M M I I I I I I I I I I I I I r4^

-tt>

19 I9a 19b

Figure 16.

1. Top.

2. Iron Plate, covering wrest

plank.

3. Treble tuning-pins,

4. Side.

5. Muffler-rail and muffler

felt.

6. Hammers.

7. Ilammer-rail.

8. Action.

9. Arm. '

10. Digitals or Keys.

11. Key-Bed.

12. Truss.

13. Toe.

14. Sound-board.

15. Iron Plate.

16. Sustaining Pedal.
144

The Modern Piano. 145

17.

Muffler Pedal,

20.

Muffler Trap-work,

18.

Soft Pedal.

21.

Action.

19.

Trap-work.

22.

Soft Pedal Lifter.

19a.

Bottom Kail.

23.

Action-bolt.

19b.

Bass bridge.

24.

Bass Tuning Pins.

19c.

Treble Bridge.

various parts. In figure 15 are shown the ex-
ternal or visible parts of an upright piano with
the proper name for each appended.

The various case parts of the grand piano are
of course largely similar, but the different posi-
tion of the scale necessitates modifications, which
involve some changes in names and positions of
parts, as shown on page 147.

Names of Internal Parts. In order to provide
the reader with a list of correct names for the vari-
ous internal parts of the piano, the illustration on
page 144, figure 16, shows an internal front view
of an upright piano.

The rear view shown on page 146 indi-
cates the position of the various elements
in the back frame and the rear of the sound-
board.

The grand piano, figure 18, page 147, cannot so
well be shown as its internal parts are hidden by
the solid case. The differences, such as they are,
which exist between the two types, however, are
thoroughly explained in the pages which follow.

Figure 17.

1. Top Block of Back, behind wrest-plank.

2. Limiting Rim of Sound-board.

3. Posts.

4. Ribbing.

5. Surface of Sound-board.

6. Bottom-rail of Back.

7. Limiting rim of Sound-board.

146

Figure 18,

2.
3.
4.
5.
5a.

Top.

Top-Stick or Prop.

Case.

Key-Bed.

Leg.

Pedal-Frame or Ly

6. Pedal Frame Brace

7. Pedal Rod.

8. Key-Slip.

9. Key-Block.
10. Fail-Board.

re. 11. Music Desk.

147

148

Modern Piano Tuning.

Materials Used in Piano Construction.

Woods :
Mahogany.
Walnut.
Oak.

Circassian Walnut.
Bird's Eye Maple.

Maple.

White Wood.

White Pine.

Spruce.

Pear.

Holly.

Sycamore.

Cedar.

Mahogany.

Leiatheks :
Doeskin.
Elkskin.
Buckskin.

Fext and Cloth:

Green and White Baize.
Tone Felt.
Damper Felt, hard.
Damper Felt, soft.
Flannel.

IVOBY.

Celluloid.
Iron.

Steel.

Bbass.
Gbaphite.

Used In

Veneers for Cases.

Wrest-Planks.

Backs.

Hammer moldings and shanks.

Hammer rails, dowels, etc.

Body of case work.

Key Frames and keys.

Soimd-boards.

Various small action parts.

Various action parts.

Key-rail cloth, punchings.

Hammers.

Bass dampers.

Treble-dampers.

Casework punchings, fall-board

8tri])s, name-board strips,

stringing.
Tops of white keys.

Fronts of white keys.

Iron plate, action brackets,
lx)lts and general hardware.

Action angle rails, plates, trap-
work springs, etc.
Action-springs, pedal feet, rods,

Lubrication of action, etc.

The Modern Piano. 149

Various other materials are used in small quan-
tities, for individual manufacturers have their
own special methods which require special mater-
ials. But the above includes the principal ma-
terials common to all pianos.

Finish. Modern pianos are elaborately finished
with a highly polished surface. The base of this
finish is several coats of varnish, which are rubbed
down and then re-varnished with what is called a
''flowing" coat of very heavy varnish. This is
again rubbed down, first with pumice stone, felt
pad and water, then with rotten stone, felt pad
and water and then with the hand. The final
finish is given by rubbing with lemon oil, which
is lastly wiped off with cheese cloth wrung out
in alcohol.

Although this finish is very beautiful it does not
retain its brilliancy long under domestic condi-
tions. In the remarks on piano repairing I have
made several suggestions concerning the repair
of damaged varnish work.

This brief description of the modern piano has
been intended to furnish the student only with
an explanation of the relation of the various parts
to each other and the correct functions of each.
More thorough studies are made in following

150 Modern Piano Tuning. /

chapters of certain elements which the tuner re-
quires to understand in completeness and the
present chapter will be perhaps most useful in
providing a convenient peg on which to hang
them. Although it fulfills so humble a purpose,
however, it will not be without its value if it im-
presses on the reader's mind the great truth that
the piano, as it stands, is by no means to be re-
garded as the fruit of sudden inspiration but
rather as the contemporary stage in a long proc-
ess of evolution. The history of the instruments
which preceded the piano in point of time, and
which in system are its ancestors, shows plainly
that the invention of the hammer action by
Cristofori in 1711 was merely the culmination of
a long series of efforts on the part of many great
craftsmen, looking towards the production of a
musical stringed instrument capable of doing for
domestic use what the organ has always done for
the church; namely, furnish complete command
over all existing resources of harmony as well as
of melody. The piano as it stands to-day is the
crown of three centuries of endeavor; but it is
by no means certain that it will not yet be modi-
fied much further. No one can pretend that the
piano is a perfect instrument. Its tempered in-

The Modern Piano. 151

tonation, its rather hard unmalleable tone, its lack
of true sostenuto, all represent defects that must
in time be improved out of existence. Meanwhile,
we have to take the piano as we find it, realizing
that after all it is a very fine and very wonder-
ful instrument.^

Incidentally, it is a matter for congratulation
that the modern development of the piano is
almost wholly an American achievement ; and that
European makers are confessedly inferior to the
best of their American colleagues. Why this
should be so is another matter; but it certainly
is so.

1 The reader who desires to study the extremely fascinating liis-
tory of the piano may find an extensive literature on the subject.
Hipkins is the best authority by all means. See bibliographical
note at the end of this volume.

Chapter VII.

SOUND-BOARD AND STRINGS.

Quite as characteristic of the piano's individu-
ality as the hammer action itself, is the apparatus
of resonance, or, as we more usually call it, the
sound-board. The piano is a stringed instrument
and thus claims kinship with viols and lutes and
all their descendants ; but ever so much more it is
a resonance instrument and a percussion instru-
ment. In fact, the true character of the piano
cannot be rightly apprehended until we have real-
ized that the string-element is really overshad-
owed to a considerable extent by the sound-board.
The piano is just as much dependent upon reso-
nance as upon the prior vibration of the strings.
Without the sound-board the piano would have
neither power nor color to its tones. Moreover,
variations in the quality of the sound-board ma-
terial in its construction and in the skill of its de-
sign involve parallel variations in the tonal values
of pianos, of such marked and distinct charac-

152

Sound-Board and Strings. 153

ter as, almost without any special physical in-
vestigation, to convince us that we must accord
to the combined tone-apparatus which we call the
sound-board and strings, entirely individual pe-
culiarities and functions.

In fact I propose in this chapter to consider the
sound-board and strings together as one complete
structure, which for want of a better term, we
might name the ''tone-emission apparatus" of
the piano. In this and in what follows, I do not
wish to be considered dogmatic, and certainly have
no intention of composing vague and involved
disquisitions on the subject-matter. Practical
throughout this book is proclaimed to be; but it
is impossible to talk practically about the piano's
sound-board and its strings, unless we have a solid
basis of fact on which to found our theories. In-
deed, in this particular case, as in many others,
the one sure method of going astray is to rely
on rule-of-thumb or traditionary notions; as the
experience of numberless persons who have tried
to improve the sound-board, most clearly, if pain-
fully, indicates. Beginning therefore with a clear
discussion of the phenomena seen in the action of
the sound-board and the strings, I shall try to
work out the bearing of these upon the facts of

154 Modern Piano Tuning.

piano construction as they affect the piano tuner
in his work, the pianist in his playing and the
piano in its durability and value.

Definition of tone-emission apparatus functions.
The object of the tone-emission-apparatus may
be described as follows: to produce the charac-
teristic piano tone, through the vibration of the
strings in response to the percussive action of the
hammers thereon, and through the resonating
functions of the sound-board, whereby the original
string wave-forms are combined, amplified, and
transformed in quality as required for the pur-
pose indicated.

That is not a neat definition perhaps, nor is it
uncommonly accurate in all its parts ; but for the
present it is perhaps the truest description that
can be assimilated. Later on we shall improve
and refine the details with better understanding.

Piano Tone. The feature of the piano which
distinguishes it generally from all other musical
instruments, and specially from all other stringed
instruments, is the peculiar character of its tone.
This is, to an extent, of course, hard and un-
malleable. It possesses neither the plasticity of
the violin tone nor the bitter-sweet gayety and
lightness of the guitar. It is solid, yet evanescent,

Sound-Board and Strings. 155

hard yet capable of infinite gradation in inten-
sity. Lacking the serenity and majesty of the
organ diapason, it is pre-eminent in obedience to
touch. The pianist cannot indeed sustain his
tones, nor swell or diminish them at will. Here
both organ and violin surpass the piano. But the
pianist can color his tone almost as widely as
the violinist, and withal has a touch control over
dynamics which the organ entirely lacks. Thus
the tone of the piano, as brought forth by a good
performer, has qualities highly attractive, which,
combined with the convenience of the instrument,
its capacity for complete musical expression in
all possible harmonic relations, and its moderate
price, have made it supreme in popularity. Let
us then see just how this peculiar tone is pro-
duced.

Acoustical Definition of Piano Tone. Speaking
from the view-point which we have adopted in
Chapter II, it may be said that piano tone is the
effect of a wave-form induced by hammers strik-
ing upon heavy high-tension stretched strings at
pre-determined points on the surface thereof;
these waves having definite forms which are modi-
fied by the resonating power of the sound-board.
The first important feature is that the piano tone

156 Modern Piano Tuning.

is produced by the strings being struck; thus dis-
tinguishing the piano from all other stringed in-
struments.

The string is struck. As we have already found
out ^ a string stretched at high tension and struck
by a piano hammer, is thrown into an extremely
complex form of vibration. This vibrational form
consists of the resultant of a number of simple
forms, which in turn are the effect of the string's
vibrating in various segments as well as in its
whole length. In short, the fundamental tone of
the string, together with partial tones correspond-
ing to at least the following five divisions,^ sound
together whenever the hammer makes its stroke.
The exact number of concomitant partials depends,
partly upon the amplitude of the vibration, which
depends in turn upon the intensity of the blow,
partly upon choice of the point of contact of
hammer on string, and partly upon the stiffness
and weight of the string.

"Touch." ''Touch," of course is an impor-
tant element in the control of the exact shape of
the wave-form. Tone-color or character, as we
are aware,"* depends upon the wave-form, and

1 f^upra. Chapter IT.

2 See Cliapter II, "Resultant Motion." ' '

3 Cf. Chapter II.

Sound-Board and Strings. 157

that means upon the number and prominence of
the concomitant partials. That, in turn, from the
''touch" point of view, means the hammer velocity
in connection with the rebound thereof. That is
to say, control over the wave-form of the string,
as finally emitted through the medium of the
sound-board, rests, so far as concerns the per-
former, upon his manner of manipulating the ham-
mer so as to vary the length of time required for it
to travel from the position of rest to the string,
and back ; or in other words, and more roughly, in
the force and rapidity of the actual excitation of
the string.

Sound-Board Vibration Demonstrated. So
much for hammer and string; but how about the
sound-board? I have indicated that the part
played by the board is not only important but
decisive. This may be experimentally demon-
strated. Suppose that a long thin rod of spruce
wood is made up, sufficiently long to extend the
length of one room and into another. Spruce
is the wood from which piano sound-boards are
made. Suppose that one end of this rod is
doweled into one of the ribs of a piano sound-
board so that it touches the rear surface of the
board and thence runs into the next room, all in-

158 Modern Piano Tuning.

termediate doors being stopped off so that ordi-
narily no sound will come from one room to the
other. If the open end of the rod be now brought
into contact with the sound-board of another
piano, leaving the dampers of this second instru-
ment raised, the tone of the first piano when played
will be reproduced note for note but in diminished
volume, from the surface of the second sound-
board. The same experiment may be made by
using a violin as the ''receiving instrument."
This experiment shows that the sound-board of
the piano has independently the power of vibrat-
ing in all the extraordinary complex of motions
that arise, not only as the resultant wave of the
complex motion of one string, but as the combined
resultant — the resultant of resultants — of the mo-
tions of many simultaneously excited strings.
The motion of a string may be compared with the
operation of several forces pulling in different
directions. The resultant of these forces — that
is, the direction in which the net value of all the
forces when compounded, is seen to lie — can be
determined mathematically. So also we know that
the complex vibration of one string combines into
a single complex or resultant curve.^ And so also

1 Supra, Cliapter H,

Sound-Board and Strings. 159

we can see that the complex vibrations of two
strings, if impressed together upon a sound-board,
must combine into a further resultant; a process
which can be carried on indefinitely. Thus, whilst
we see on the one hand that the sound-board must
be capable of complex forms of motion, we can also
perceive that the mechanical realization of such
forms is neither inconceivable nor even particu-
larly difficult to apprehend.

Analogy of the Monochord. If the suggestions
I have made here have any value, they must tend
to give us a reasonably clear conception of a theory
which may account for the peculiar operation of
the sound-board and may fix definitely its place
in the economy of the piano. If, in fact, we keep
steadily in mind the truth that no matter how
many strings may be struck at any given moment,
nor how consequently complex their motions may
be, these motions always must express themselves
on the sound-board as a single resultant motion,
it becomes clear that such resultant motion is re-
sponsible for the tone; and nothing else.

In the circumstances, we may, without unduly
stretching the comparison, suggest an analogy
with the monochord. This, as we all know, is a
single string stretched between a hitch pin and a

160 Modern Piano Tuning.

tuning pin over a small sound-board, with a move-
able bridge which can be shifted so as to change
the vibrating length of the string whenever and
however desired. Now, this string has in itself
the possibility of producing all the tones which
can be had by shifting the bridge. No matter how
the bridge be placed and therefore no matter what
segment of the string be vibrating at any time,
it is the same string. The same string vibrates
always, but the moving of the bridge selects the
particular segment which is affected. So also
with the sound-board and strings of the piano.
The sound-board is a true vibrator, whose opera-
tions are representable as resultant motions of
the string vibrations. The strings are selecting
vibrators, impressing their own individual vibra-
tions upon the sound-board, either singly or in
combination. When a single impression is made,
the board repeats the motion exactly as trans-
mitted to it. When a complex of impressions is
made, this develops instantly into a resultant mo-
tion, compounded of all the motions; or as we
might better say, being the geometrical sum of
all the motions.

Sound-Board a True Vibrator. If this be a
plausible hypothesis, from the mathematical view-

Sound-Board and Strings. 161

point, it is just as plausible mechanically, for while
it may be hard to conceive the sound-board mak-
ing a thousand different kinds of motion at once,
it is not hard to conceive it making a single re-
sultant motion; nor is there any mechanical rea-
son why it should not. For if we consider that
the sound-board is a table of spruce, forcibly
arched by ribbing on its back, and then so secured
to the piano as to be always in a high state of
tension, and if further we keep in mind that the
impressibility of the board is immensely increased
through its close contact with the great battery
of high-tension strings communicating with it
through the bridges, we can see that we have in a
well-made piano sound-board nothing less than an
extremely sensitive vibrator, a whole musical in-
strument, ready to sing as soon as it is kindled into
life by the operation of the property of resonance.
The sound-board of course is a resonance instru-
ment, and it is only necessary to understand just
what this phenomenon means in Sound, to com-
plete our apprehension of the sound-board's be-
havior in use.

Resonance. As I said above, the sound-board
is the true tone-maker, whilst the strings are the
selectors or selecting vibrators. The board is the

162 Modern Piano Timing.

central telephone station, while the strings are
respectively the various subscribers' entering and
outgoing lines. The strings are the nerves, the
W board is the brain. A dozen analogies suggest
themselves. But, in any case, we cannot stop
here. We must know how the board can receive
the impressions which are transformed into re-
sultant motions. What, in fact, is this Reso-
nance 1

Resonance is the property which sonorous bod-
ies possess of impressing their vibrations upon
other sonorous bodies. In the case of the tone-
emission apparatus of the piano, the sound-board
is placed in contact with the battery of strings
stretched above it, which pass over wooden
bridges glued on the surface of the board, pressing
upon these latter with a heavy down bearing. The
strings are brought over the bridges between pins
which impart to them also a side-bearing as they
cross. Thus it may be seen that the sound-board
is in the most favorable condition to receive any
vibrations that may originate in the strings. If
it can be shown that the vibrations of a string can
actually be imparted to the sound-board, and can
cause that apparatus to undergo a resultant vi-
bratory motion compounded from these vibra-

Sound-Board and Strings. 163

tions, then we shall have the theory of the sound-
board demonstrated.

Now, since resonance is a property possessed by
all substances which may form sonorous bodies,
it will be understood that we are not here discuss-
ing any uncommon quality of the piano sound-
board. Seeing that the physical nearest cause
of sound sensations is the performance of vibra-
tory motion by solid bodies, it follows that reso-
nance must take place wherever that vibration can
be transmitted. If then we have a body of some
material thrown into vibration, it is easy to see
that all other bodies of similar material in con-
tact with it must also vibrate. Whether their
frequency is the same as that of the original body
depends upon the comparative masses and other
qualities of the two. All elastic substances are
capable of transmitting vibrations, themselves
partaking of the vibratory motion in the process ;
and so also if the two bodies in contact be of dif-
ferent material, it follows that vibratory motion
may be transmitted from one to the other, so long
as both be elastic enough and contact be main-
tained. Actual physical contact, indeed, may
sometimes, under favorable conditions, be elimi-
nated, and the atmosphere alone be competent to

164 Modern Piano Tuning.

transmit the pulse from one body to the other, as
it does from the body to the ear. This latter po-
tentiality is translated into fact only when each
of the bodies is very favorably situated for the
purpose and extremely sensitive to vibratory im-
pulse. The resonance boxes of two adjacent tun-
ing forks furnish an example of these latter quali-
ties.

We see therefore that there is no mechanical or
physical reason why the sound-board should not
at least receive the vibrations of the strings. The
question therefore becomes this; does the sound-
board reproduce them after it has received them;
and how?

Composition of Impulses. We have already
seen (supra) that the most satisfactory hypothesis
of the sound-board's functions is that which con-
siders it as a true tone-maker; but the mind does
not always grasp easily the idea of the apparently
stiff and unresponsive sound-board reproducing
and amplifying the complex vibrations of the
strings. Yet a simple illustration will show that
this is quite possible.

Suppose we secure somewhere a heavy ball, or
a metal weight, like a ten pound scale weight, and
suspend it from a cord so as to form a pendulum.

Sound-Board and Strings. 165

If now the cord be gently agitated until it settles
into its normal period of vibration, we can deter-
mine just what its natural frequency is. Hav-
ing done this, we may allow the pendulum to
come to rest again, and then begin to direct against
it puffs of air from the mouth, timing these so as
to correspond with the vibratory motion of the
pendulum. For several seconds this will have no
effect, but if the work be kept up, gradually it will
be observed that the weight begins to stir. Let
the work go on, being careful to blow on the weight
only when its direction of motion is the same as
that of the breath; that is to say to blow on it
only when it is moving away from one. By de-
grees, if the puffs of air are timed as directed, the
weight will begin to swing back and forth in its
regular period and at its regular amplitude or
width of motion. Thus we have an experimental
demonstration of the mathematical fact that if a
series of small equal forces be periodically ap-
plied to a given resistance through a given elapsed
time, at the end of that time the total force ap-
plied has been equal to the sum of the small forces
delivered in one unit of time corresponding to
the period of one force. To take a concrete in-
stance, if a series of taps, each one ounce in weight,

166 Modern Piano Tuning.

be delivered at the rate of one per second until,
say, 160 of them have been made, the resistance
has been operated on with a force, at the end of
160 seconds, equal to a force of ten pounds (160
ounces), operating through one second. Thus we
see also that it is quite possible for even the most
delicate and minute vibratory motions not only
to be imparted to a stiff sound-board but also to
throw that board into resultant motion. For if we
consider that the middle tones of the piano are
produced by frequencies running from 200 to 800
vibrations per second we can easily see that what
is possible in the extreme case here described is
more than possible — ^nay, is inevitable — in the case
of the specially prepared, highly elastic and ten-
sioned sound-board, especially when we remember
that the strings, being struck, are set in relatively
violent agitation, and communicate a relatively
more powerful vibratory impression than can be
had by blowing with the breath, on a far more re-
sponsive resistance than the weight, and at many
times the possible blowing speed.

Considerations like these, although they do not
actually demonstrate the hypothesis of sound-
board behavior here adopted, do strengthen it and
tend to confirm it.

Sound-Board and Strings. 167

To sum up, we may say that the sound-board and
strings of the piano together constitute the tone-
emission apparatus, that the sound-board is the
main vibrator or tone-maker, that the strings are
the selecting vibrators, and that the vibrations
of the sound-board are resultant single vibrations
due to composition of the complex of vibrations
proceeding from the strings, just as the latter
themselves are resultants of the complex of seg-
mental vibrations which take place in the string
when it is struck. I do not claim for this hypo-
thesis that it is above criticism, but I am certain
that it meets the facts more fairly than any other
I have yet seen.

In making this analysis I have wished to pre-
pare the reader's mind for the critical examina-
tion of sound-board construction, and especially to
show reasons for some of the peculiar methods
that characterize that construction and have been
worked out by piano makers experimenting often
in the dark. The problem of practical construc-
tion is to provide a resonance table that will not
merely take up in resultant vibration the im-
pressed vibrations of the strings, but also will
properly amplify these as well as reproduce their
forms. In other words, it is not enough for the

168 Modern Piano Tuning.

sound-board to reproduce the characteristics of
the tone, but to amplify it; make it loud enough.
We need quantity as well as quality.

Amplification. Amplification of the wave-
forms is of course a natural consequence flowing
from the large mass of the sound-board and the
consequent relatively great mass of adjacent air
which can be put in vibration. The tones origi-
nally impressed by the wave-forms of the strings
are therefore intensified.

Coloration of Tone hy the Sound-Board. We
know that inasmuch as most piano strings are
struck well above the seventh node, the seventh
partial is a definite member of the partial tone pro-
cession in the piano string's wave-form. The
presence of this partial tone, however, is, on a
thoroughly well-made piano at least, scarcely per-
ceptible in its influence on the tone color, although
when it is markedly present in any other tonal
combination, its tendency to promote harshness
is at once discerned. This partial and its mul-
tiples, as well as the ninth and others above it
which are not eliminated in the upper regions of
the piano on account of the high striking point,
would have a much more distinctly hardening ef-
fect on the tone than is the case, if it were not for

Sound-Board and Strings. 169

the fact that a properly made sound-board un-
doubtedly modifies these and other odd-numbered
partial tones, at least as to their intensity. Thus
we have another function of the sound^board which
must be considered, namely the tone-qualifying
function.

Proper Vibration of the Sound-Board. It is
evident from what has already been said that the
piano sound-board is a sensitive vibrating instru-
ment and therefore must possess a proper period
of vibration all its own. That this is so is plain
from the facts of the case. The board is arched,
or crowned, by means of ribs planed arch-wise and
glued to the back of the board, so as to draw the
front surface into tension and press the rear into
compression. It is then fastened into the wooden
back of the piano by being glued along its outer
edges, so that it remains permanently in such a
way that it is continually in a "live" condition,
ready to vibrate. But it is also necessary to take
into account the fact that the piano sound-board
is covered by an iron plate, which bears the strain
of the stretched strings. If we examine the iron
plate and sound-board of a piano after stringing,
we shall see that the entire structure thus formed,
as well as the wooden back, is in a condition partly

170 Modern Piano Tuning.

of compression and partly of tension. Hence tlie
whole structure has its own regular period of vi-
bration and its own proper tone.

The object of sound-board design therefore must
be to take advantage of the proper vibration of
the board, plate and back together, and to see
that the relative importance of each element is re-
tained, without any one being unduly prominent.
The fact is, of course, that since the sound-board
is the true tone-maker, and since the iron plate
and back are in such close contact with it, each of
the two latter exert a constant modifying influence
on the vibratory activity of the board. In short,
the various materials of which the back-structure
(board, plate and back) are made, all exert their
individual influences, so that the ultimate vibra-
tory period and composition of the wave-form
proper to the sound-board arises out of all these
forces compounded. Hence the question of the
dimensions and design of each of these elements
is almost equally important.

I have made this digression because it is im-
portant that the tuner should understand the rea-
sons for differences in tone-quality as between
various pianos. I shall not go into small detail
regarding the design of these elements because

Sound-Board amd Strings. 171

that is the province of a technical treatise on
piano construction and has been treated else-
where.^ The following remarks are appended,
however, treating generally of the influence of the
parts mentioned.

Influence of the Iron Plate. The cast iron of
the plate is of course considerably stiifer and
more rigid than wood. Its weight-for-bulk is also
much greater ; or, in other words, its specific grav-
ity is represented by a higher index. Now it is
well known that the vibratory form of any body
which is enough under tension to induce suscepti-
bility to vibrative influences is modified by the
factors of density and rigidity. On the whole, any
increase in density and rigidity tends to produce
a wave form in which the higher partials are un-
damped. The more '* yielding" structure of
wood, as it were, has a damping effect on the less
powerful partials, or rather, perhaps, is incapa-
ble of so elaborate a subdivision under the in-
fluence of the string vibrations. Hence the wood
of the sound-board will, if left to itself, act as a
damper on all the feebler partials of the strings,
however many may have been left after the re-
bound of the hammer. The tone quality, there-

1 Cf . "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building."

172 Modern Piano Tuning.

fore, is founded on a partial-tone series scarcely
extending above the eighth, with perhaps a trace
of the multiples of the even numbered partials.
Iron, however, modifies this procession by taking
up the higher partial vibrations of the strings and
reproducing them in amplified form. At least
this is the most plausible explanation of the plate's
activities, for it is certain that the more iron we
have in close touch with the strings, at the ex-
tremities and on the bearings thereof as well as
around the sound-board area, the harder and more
'* metallic" is the tone; which of course means the
existence in the tonal complex of high dissonant
partials. Thus it is plain that the iron plate
should be so designed as not to overload the struc-
ture, and especially so as not to usurp all the
functions of bearing. Wooden upper-bearing
bridges are often useful in a piano which otherwise
would produce a harsh and metallic tone. Ex-
cessive bracing or barring and undue massiveness
are also bad features. In fact, we may say that
the plate should be as light as possible ; the lighter
the better so long as it is strong enough to stand
the string strains. This of course greatly de-
pends on the precise tensions at which the strings
are stretched, which again depends on the dimen-

Sound-Board and Strings. 173

sions of the strings. But, as we shall shortly see,
scientific design tends to emancipate us from the
false gods of excessive tension, hardness of wire
and "bing-bing" tone.^

Influence of the back. The technical impossi-
bility of producing an iron plate of the ordinary
thin-sheet type, strong enough to bear the entire
strain of sound-board and strings, without at the
same time being too enormously heavy, has neces-
sitated the use of a very massive wooden back.^
This back, of which I have already given some
description, is extremely large and clumsy, and
necessarily so.^ Its effect on tone can only be de-
scribed as deadening; for there is no doubt that
the natural vibrations of sound-board and plate
are very much damped by the drag of the back.
On the whole, therefore, we can only wish the ut-
most success to the inventors who have been try-
ing during the last twenty-five years to furnish
us with practical substitutes for the wooden back ;
although it should not be overlooked that the plate
vibrations are not to be encouraged so much as
those proper to the sound-board. The inventions
of Wm. Bauer of Chicago point the way to a suc-

1 See infra, String Dimensions, et seq., in the present chapter.

2 Cf. supra, Chapter VI. 3 See the previous chapter.

174 Modern Piano Tuning.

cessful solution of this problem, unless I am much
mistaken.

Dimensions of the sound-hoard. The sound-
board is limited, of course, according to the size
of the piano, and therefore no particular rules can
be given for length and breadth, or even for shape.
It is to be observed however that the size of the
piano and the tension and other features of the
scale will require parallel modifications in the
size and thickness of the board ; that is in the vi-
brating area. But this is a matter which, in the
nature of the case, must be determined by experi-
ment. The point is that the board must be free
to vibrate, in the particular situation created by
the other conditions of the piano. If it is too
heavy it will vibrate feebly on light playing, whilst
with heavy playing its vibratory form will incline
to be too much in its own proper period, thus
smothering the resultant vibrations selected by the
strings. If it is too light it will respond in light
playing too readily and so again its proper vi-
bration will intrude, whilst on heavy playing it
will be unable to respond strongly enough to pro-
vide sufficient support to the strings. Thus the
thickness must be graduated to the size. In prac-
tice piano makers have found it well to vary the

Sound-Board and Strings. 175

thickness of the board between the two extremi-
ties. Thicknesses running from %" in the treble
to Ya:" in the bass are usual. But these are ex-
perimental matters and can be determined only
experimentally.

Ribbing. The sound-board must be ribbed in
order to stiffen its surface and enable it to resist
the various strains put on it. These strains are
(1) the down bearing of the strings; (2) the ten-
sion of the strings; (3) the opposed tension and
compression of upper and under surfaces due to
the crowning. The crown is necessary in order to
give a proper bearing and also to resist the down-
ward pressure.

It is likewise useful in promoting the necessary
tension for free vibration. The ribs are planed
into curved surfaces where they are glued on to
the board, so as to produce the crown, which also
is further promoted by being glued on to slanted
''linings," as they are called, in the back struc-
ture. It is customary to use from 12 to 14 ribs
and these should be placed so as best to sustain
the strains without being too heavy or having too
much of a damping effect. No other rules can or
need be given in this book.^

1 For a general discussion of these points cf. "Theory and
Practice of Pianoforte Building."

176 Modern Piano Tuning.

Bridges. The position and curvature of the
bridges are entirely governed by the string de-
sign. No special descriptions therefore need be
given here, except to remark that it has become
customary to build up the bridge structure of cross
banded veneers of hard wood, so as to avoid any
tendency to split. The pins, which are driven into
the bridge to give side-bearing to the strings, rep-
resent an archaic survival from past days, in fact
from the days of the harpsichord, and there is
no doubt that it would be a great deal better to
use an agraffe, or drilled metal stud, such as is
found on the upper bearing bars of grand pianos
(and in some uprights also). False beats in
strings are often generated by faults in the pin-
ning, whereby twists in the wire are produced.

The bridges must be high enough to give a
good down bearing and wide enough for a good
side bearing. They should never be cut to permit
the treble brace on the plate to pass through,
but the plate design should be modified accord-
ingly. A cut treble bridge always means a bridge
that does not transmit the string vibrations prop-
erly to the bridge, and invariably involves bad
tone, and rapid break-down. The greatest enemy
to the conservation of piano tone is the degenera-

Sound-Board and Strings. 177

tion of the board under string pressure ; a process
promoted by a cut bridge. Tuners may take it as
true that a cut bridge means a bad piano.

Bridges should not be brought too near the edges
of the sound-board, lest the elasticity of the board
in response to the vibrations transmitted by the
strings be rendered valueless for those situated at
the ends of the bridges. In tight places, if the
string length is to be preserved (as always it
ought to be), an extension bridge may save the
day, as may be observed interestingly in the small
4 foot, 8 inch Brambach grand, at the bass end
of the treble bridge. Bass bridges can usually be
treated best on the extension system, as bass
strings are nearly always too short anyhow.

These remarks will be principally useful to the
reader of this book in making clear to him the
cause of piano tone-production and the reasons for
differences in tone quality between pianos of ap-
parently equal grade. I shall now briefly con-
sider the string-scale.

Functions of the String. In Chapter II I have
discussed at length the physical properties of
piano strings. It is now only necessary to remark
that the object of the strings is to select the par-
ticular wave-form which the sound-board is to

178 Modern Piano Tuning.

amplify. The wave-form must first be created
by the string vibration; and therefore the dimen-
sions, weight and method of stringing are of the
utmost importance.

String Dimensions. Elsewhere I have made a
tolerably complete study of string dimensions/
and here, therefore, I may be brief. The propor-
tion of pitch from octave to octave is as 1:2 but
since strings have weight and weight increases
with length, this proportion will not hold good in
designing string lengths. Piano makers, attempt-
ing to compensate for the factors of weight and
tension, have produced various scalings of string
length ranging from the proportions 1 : 1.875 to
1 : 1.9375 for each octave. In other words, instead
of doubling the string lengths at each octave,
each string is made 1% or 1^%6 as long as its
octave above. Intermediate lengths should be
worked out, one by one, in proportion. Practice
dictates almost universally a length of 2 inches
for the highest treble strings.

Gages. It is a very clumsy and altogether un-
pardonable sin to change the gages of wire used in
a scale when putting on new strings, unless it is
obvious that some fatal defect in tension propor-

1 Cf . "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building," p. 48 et seq.

Sound-Board and Strings. 179

tions exists. Evenness of tension is a desider-
atum always aimed at, but not often attained;
mainly through lack of inclination to calculate
closely. But the tuner should very carefully fol-
low the gage of wire when re-stringing, for it is
usually to be taken for granted that the piano as
strung represents the best gaging that could be
devised, considering its scale. The wire sizes
used in piano making range from gage 12 (some-
times used in the highest treble), down to gage
26 for core wire on the heaviest bass strings on
large pianos. In determining what string gages
to use, piano makers should attempt to obtain an
even pull for each string from end to end of the
scale. On the whole, the average strain of 160
pounds per string, which is common to the mass
of American pianos, is too high, and a general
lowering of gage would be a good thing in all
probability. The high tension piano has never
fulfilled the promises so lavishly made for it
thirty-five years ago. Heavy wire means higher
tension. Tensions are already too high, which
simply means hard, thin, metallic tone, superficial
glitter and coldness. The modern piano already
has much to answer for in this respect.

Striking Point. This is another matter not al-

180 Modern Piano Tuning.

ways considered with sufficient care. In a good
piano the point at which its hammer touches each
string is chosen scientifically, for there is no more
important detail in piano design than this. I have
already discussed this subject in an earlier chapter
(Chapter II), but it may here be observed that
the tone quality of a piano is very closely asso-
ciated with the position of the hammers in relation
to the strings. The tendency in modern pianos
is to make the striking point excessively high.
For my part I should like to see a return to the
ancient fashion of low tension strings and low
striking points. Of course, as we all should real-
ize by now, the necessary tonal re-inforcement of
the short upper strings must be brought about by
raising the striking point. But this point also is
treated elsewhere (Chapter II). Commercial
pianos take all these things for granted with a
refreshing but somewhat disastrous naivete how-
ever, and it is to be hoped that readers will realize
that in these details and the care that is taken
over them rests the difference between good and
bad piano making.

Bass Strings. The use of steel, brass or cop-
per winding for the purpose of overweighting
strings artificially, so as to make up for necessary

Sound-Board and Strings. 181

shortening of true length requirements, is as old
as piano making, and older; nor has any special
improvement been made in the last half century
save as to closer winding and lessening of slippage.
It is still far too much the fashion for piano mak-
ers merely to send to the winders a pattern show-
ing their string lengths, leaving the weight of
the strings to chance, skill or tradition. In fact,
of course, the weight of a covered bass string is
just as important as the length of a treble string ;
for reasons which must by now be apparent to
every reader of this book. It is therefore most
advisable to consider the question of weight, with
its intimate relation to tension whenever consider-
ing the improvement of the tone of a piano by put-
ting on new bass strings.^

Copper vs Steel. On the whole I think it is
fairly well established that copper winding is bet-
ter than steel for bass strings ; for the reason that
the greater specific gravity of copper makes a thin-
ner wire available to produce a given weighting.
Excessive bulk is to be avoided in bass string mak-
ing. Of course, copper tarnishes and in moist

1 Consult, for complete discussion of these points, "Theory and
Practice of Pianoforte Building" (p. 48 et seq.) , and to some ex-
tent Chapter II of this book.

182 Modern Piano Tuning.

climates gets covered with verdigris, perhaps more
quickly than the tinned steel wire rusts; but I
doubt whether the difference in favor of steel is
enough to justify any preference, especially as, for
the reasons above noted, copper is tonally better.
The so-called **iron" covering wire is to-day usu-
ally a soft steel wire.^

To sum matters up, it may be said that the fol-
lowing points are important in any consideration
of a string scale.

1. Accurate proportioning of lengths, measured
string by string.

2. Careful graduation of wire thickness to as-
sure equality of tension from one end of the scale
to another.

3. Placement on the bridges with enough space
for each string to vibrate freely.

4. Avoidance of grounding bridge extremities
right on the edge of the sound-board.

5. Avoidance of too much iron on bearing
bridges.

6. Accurate weighting of bass strings.

In setting down these facts about the string

1 But the subject is highly controversial, as the discussions of
the Chicago Conference of Piano Technicians in 1916 plainly
showed.

Sound-Board and Strings. 183

scale, I have purposely avoided going into com-
plete details; partly because the vibrations of a
piano string and the details of stringing have al-
ready been treated in this book, and partly be-
cause I have elsewhere, in a volume still in
print, also discussed them quite thoroughly.^
From the tuner's view point all other necessary
information is to be found in preceding chapters.
The discussion of the sound-board has been pur-
posely more complete because accurate informa-
tion regarding its functions is not so readily avail-
able. Practical details are discussed in the chap-
ter on piano repairing {infra).

1 "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building," p. 28 et seq., p.
48 et seq., etc.

Chapter VIII.

THE ACTION AND ITS EEGULATION.

The movement or ''action" which translates the
motion of the finger-impelled key of the piano to
the hammer, has been developed within the past
fifty years to a high state of perfection. Funda-
mental work was mainly done in Europe, where
Erard established the principle of double repeti-
tion which distinguishes the modern grand piano,
and Wornum devised the tape-check which makes
the upright action efficient in repetition and re-
liable in attack. Although these revolutionary in-
ventions date back about eighty years from the
present time (1917) the enterprise of contempo-
rary makers was unequal to any immediate recog-
nition of their superiority, so that for a long time
both grand and upright pianos were fitted with
less efficient movements ; until the example of the
more courageous amongst them, especially in the
United States, showed quite unmistakably the im-
mense superiority of double repetition and the

184

The Action and Its Regulation. 185

tape check. From tliat time onwards — that is to
say during the last thirty-five years — the use of
the modern grand and upright piano action has be-
come universal throughout the world, while we
may say that, so far as concerns the United States
and Canada, there is almost complete standardiza-
tion of the two types. Our descriptions therefore
may be considered as being of general applica-
tion.

Technical Knowledge of Action principles. The
experience of fifteen years' constant contact with
piano tuners convinces me that a thorough ac-
quaintance with the scientific and mechanical fea-
tures of the piano action is uncommon amongst
them, save in a most elementary sense. I am
proposing therefore to carry out, in the present
chapter, a careful mechanical analysis of piano
action, followed by an equally careful description
of its modern forms and a general explanation of
the methods of regulating these. The discussion
will, I hope, be not only professionally useful, but
the reverse of tedious.

Functions of the Action. The functions of the
piano action may be described as follows: (1) to
convey to the hammer a motion which shall carry
it toward the string for the purpose of inflicting a

186 Modern Piano Tuning.

blow thereon, (2) to trip the hammer immediately
before its actual contact with the string, so that it
instantly rebounds without blocking the vibration,
(3) to permit the repetition of the hammer blow
without complete release of the key and (4) to
damp the string vibration immediately the key is
released. These functions are of course identical
for all forms of piano action, whether horizontal
or vertical.

It is obvious from what has been said, therefore,
that the piano action may conveniently be con-
sidered as divided into the following main ele-
ments (1) the hammer, (2) the escapement, (3)
the key and (4) the damper. From the beginning
all piano actions have possessed the 1st, 3rd and
4th of these, and in almost all cases a more or less
satisfactory mechanical solution of the 2d has been
carried out. The method of arranging these ele-
ments now to be described was first successfully
worked out by Erard in 1821 for the horizontal,
and by Wornum in 1826 for the vertical, piano.
Let us now consider how these various elements
are co-ordinated. I shall begin with the grand
piano.

The Grand Action. Erard 's principle is to-day
universal in grand piano making, but the particu-

The Action and Its Regulation. 187

lar form in which it is generally carried out to-
day was developed by Herz from Erard.^ The il-
lustration given herewith (No. 19), shows a
modem grand piano action manufactured by
Messrs. Wessell, Nickel & Gross of New York.
The parts, arrangement of parts and method of
regulation are quite typical of the very best Amer-
ican practice.

The terminology may be considered as correct
and as following the practice of the best American
action makers.

Operation of Grand Action. The student
should now follow the argument by means of a
working model, or by the simple process of re-
moving the action from a grand piano and study-
ing its motions. Pressing slowly the key of the
action we observe that the rise of the rear end
thereof affects the capstan (7) which lifts the wip-
pen (11) through contact with the wipp en knuckle
(8). On this wippen are pivoted the repetition
lever (19) and the jack (sometimes called '*fly")
(13). By lifting the hammer shank (27) up and
away from its cushion (24) it will be seen that the

1 Cf. "Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building," p. 96 et seq.,
Encyclopedia Britannica article "Pianoforte," 9th, 10th and 11th
editions, and "History of the American Pianoforte," by D. Spillane.

Figure 19.

188

The Action and Its Regulation.

189

Digital or Key.

20.

Key Frame.

21.

Key Leads.

22.

Front Rail Pin and Punch-

ing.

23.

Balance Rail Pin and

24.

Punching.

25.

Back Rail Cloth or Felt.

26,

Capstan Screw.

27.

Knuckle of Wippen.

28.

Bottom Rail of Action.

29.

10.

Supporting Flange of Wip-

pen.

30.

11.

Wippen.

31,

12.

Knuckle of Jack or Fly.

32,

13.

Jack or Fly.

33,

14.

Regulating-Screw Rail.

34,

f Jack-regulating Button

15.^

and Screw #1 regulat-
t ing escapement.

36.

( Jack-regulating Button

37.

16.-

1 and Screw #2, regulat-

38.

( ing oscillation of Jack.

39,

17.

Spoon (Jack Stop).

40,

18.

Repetition Lever Support.

19.

Repetition Lever.

Repetition Lever Spring,
Spring for Jack or Fly.
Repetition Lever Regulat-
ing Button.
Repetition Lever Stop.
Hammer Cushion.
Top Action Rail.
Hammer Flange.
Hammer-Shank or Stem.
Knuckle of Hammer.

{Repetition Lever
Regulating Screw.
Hammer-head molding.
Under-felt of Hammer.
Top- Felt of Hammer.
Back check wire.
Back check head.
Damper Lever.

{Damper Lever Flange and
Spring.
Damper Lever Leads.
Damper Block.
Damper Wire.
Damper Head.
Damper Felt.

190 Modern Piano Tuning.

top of 13 works in a groove in 19. Moreover, tlie
upper surface of 19 bears against the hammer
knuckle (28) the weight of which and of the ham-
mer, depresses 19 until 13 also is in contact with
28. When, however, the key is depressed it will
be noted that the lifting is first done by 19 and
that 13 comes in to play only after 19 has begun to
lift the haimner. As the key is further depressed
13 lifts on the hammer and pushes it up to the
string until tripped by its knuckle (12) coming
in contact with the regulating button (15). The
momentum of the hammer carries it up the rest of
the way to the string, whence it immediately re-
bounds and is caught by the back check (33 and 34)
which holds it until the key is released, when the
hammer is again supported by 19, which holds the
hammer up while 13 slips back under 28. The
function of 19 then is seen to be that of assisting
repetition, for by using it, the hammer may be
again and again operated through the jack (13)
without the finger entirely quitting the key. As
may be seen by practical test on the action, so
long as 19 holds up the hammer by means of the
expansive strength of 20, just enough to enable
13 to slip back into place (which last operation is
performed very quickly through the agency of 21),

The Action and Its Regulation. 191

the stroke may be repeated; and therefore it is
plain that the key need only be lifted enough to
afford the finger a secure stroke. Eeally, then,
19 is the repetition lever in fact as well as in
name and through its agency the escapement
which otherwise would have to be affected by
quitting the key and giving it time to rise entirely,
is effectually performed.

Comparison ivith Square Action. The old
square piano, still to be found once in awhile, pre-
sents in its action an interesting comparison with
the above. Here will be seen the difference be-
tween single and double repetition. In the square
action, the repetition lever is omitted and the jack
can only find its way under the hammer butt
safely, when the key is allowed to rise almost to its
full height in front. Thus the finger action must
be higher and the execution of rapid passages be-
comes difficult if not impossible.

The Back Check. There is, however, one other
extremely important element which so far has only
incidentally been mentioned. This element is com-
mon to all types of piano action, grand, square and
upright alike, and is found in even the earliest
successful pianos. I refer to the back check (33
and 34). The object of this is to catch and hold

192 Modern Piano Tuning.

the hammer firmly on its rebound, thus assisting
the recovery of 19 and 13. Even in pianos like
the square, or older makes of grand, one always
finds the back-check, whether the double-repetition
device be present or not. Indeed, the inventor of
the pianoforte action, Cristofori, to whom belongs
premier honors as father of piano making, cer-
tainly mastered the necessity for the back-check in
the course of his experiments, for he devised them,
in almost modern shape, and built them into his
last pianos. This may be seen by examining the
Cristofori piano now standing in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, the date of which is
1720. The back-check, then, is as old as the piano.
This fact alone shows its essential value, for not
otherwise would the necessity for something like it
have been so quickly discerned. Cristofori, of
course, was an uncommon genius, for in his last
actions (1726 and later) he had also an under-
lever, not unlike the repetition-lever of the modern
grand piano, and very much like the under-lever of
the '*01d English Square Action" so-called; the
object whereof is to steady the hammer and impart
elasticity to the blow.

It will be observed that the back-check comes
into action when the hammer, rebounding from the

The Action and Its Regulation. 193

strings, is descending towards a position of rest.
The spring of the repetition lever would naturally
throw the hammer back towards the strings again,
and thus keep it dancing up and down instead of
bringing it sharply to rest. Of course, the back
check is to be carefully adjusted so as to catch the
hammer at just the right point in its arc of
travel. Thus the back check performs two func-
tions, (1) it catches and holds the hammer on its
rebound, where the repetition lever alone could
not hold it and (2) it allows the repetition lever to
lift the hammer again the moment the key is re-
leased. In other words, since the back check
works from the key direct, it follows that the
least raising of the back end of the key releases
the check from the hammer, whereupon the repeti-
tion lever does the rest, as described above ; but the
check is necessary to prepare the hammer for the
action of the lever. The operating or sound
producing part of the grand piano action may be
described by saying that the key moves the repeti-
tion lever, the lever moves the hammer and then
lets the jack move it further, the jack moves the
hammer to the string and then trips it, the check
catches the hammer on rebound, and the lever lifts
it the moment the key is released; whereupon the

194 Modern Piano Tuning,

cycle of motions may once more be set in mo-
tion, to be repeated as often as the key rises at
the back enough to ease the back check from the
hammer head.

Turning Points. Thus the grand action ap-
pears, in its sound producing parts, as comprising
six centers and six radii, describing six arcs of
turning. All piano actions may be similarly con-
sidered.

The Damper Action. The function of the
damper (40) is to rest on the strings when the key
is not in use and so prevent any vibration of the
string, especially to prevent any sympathetic vi-
bration which might be produced by the vibration
of another string having partials in common. As
will at once be observed, however, the damper is
so positioned that when the key is in motion, and
has descended about one-third of its total dip, the
damper lever (35) begins to lift and with it also
the damper head, so that by the time the hammer
is about to make its stroke, the damper is well
clear of the string. Upon the return of the key to
its position of rest, the damper is allowed to fall
back on the string, being pressed down thereupon
by means of the spring in the damper lever.

Some European actions are to be found with

The Action and Its Regulation. 195

dampers which normally press up against the un-
der side of the strings by means of springs and are
drawn down when the key is pressed. Such are
the Erard, which retains the original action in-
vented by Sebastian Erard in 1821, and the Broad-
wood of London, the latter being the oldest of
existing makes.

Damper pedal. The damper action can be en-
tirely raised from the strings, independent of the
operation of the piano action, by means of the
damper rod (not shown in illustration), which runs
underneath the line of damper levers and is con-
trolled by the right hand pedal of the piano
through suitable trapwork usually placed under
the key-bed.

General Construction Practice. The piano ac-
tion in all forms is a wooden machine. Numer-
ous attempts to devise a satisfactory action of
metal have so far been uniformly failures, largely
because the peculiar requirements of lightness,
independence of lubricants and low frictional re-
sistance seem to present insuperable difficulties.
Although, therefore, the stickiness, dampness and
liability to warping which naturally characterise
wooden machinery of any sort render the piano
action somewhat unreliable and distinctly trouble-

196 Modern Piano Tuning.

some at times, it is not likely tliat much change will
be made in the future, unless indeed some entirely
new principle is discovered. On the whole, how-
ever, the wooden piano action, especially in its
grand piano form, is a wonderfully efficient piece
of machinery.

Being in effect a series of centers, with radii
therefrom moving through arcs of circles, the
piano action requires numerous pivotal points.
These are now universally provided by means of
flanges carrying brass center-pins, working in
bushed holes, on which the levers turn. These
flanges have been always of wood hitherto but
for the last fifteen years there has been a con-
stant and steady drift towards brass or other
metal forms ; and there is no doubt that the piano
of the future will use such centers altogether;
if only because they are more rigid, less likely
to loosen at the bushings and more easily ad-
justed.

The woods used in the piano action have been
briefly mentioned already ^ and here it may prin-
cipally be said that the practice of the best makers
has not noticeably varied in a good many years.
Hard woods such as maple, beech, and sometimes

iCf. Chapter VT.

The Action and Its Regulation. 197

oak, are used where strength and rigidity are the
requirements, as for instance in hammer butts,
hammer shanks and supporting rails. Key
frames are usually white pine and keys them-
selves the same wood, particularly chosen for
straight grain.

The key frame and keyboard are to-day as they
were a century and more ago, at least as to essen-
tials. No particular progress has been made, ex-
cept that we have better felt, larger pins for front
and balance rails and accurately machined mor-
tises and holes. But otherwise there is nothing of
importance to record.

The felts used in piano actions are especially
manufactured for the purpose, the principal varie-
ties being the very fine close-textured red-cloth
used for bushing and the spongy green and white
material used for punchings. Card-board and
paper punchings are also used, for fine work under
the keys, as described later.

The brass center-pin is universal and attempts
to substitute other material for it have not suc-
ceeded, although recent experiments throw much
doubt upon the question of comparative durabil-
ity as between brass and steel wire. What is
true of pins in this respect is even more true of

198 Modern Piano Tuning.

the springs, which are always made of brass, but
which, in grand pianos especially, seem to collapse
and lose their ''life" very soon under modern
conditions. It would probably be a good thing if
experiments looking to the substitution of steel
springs were made ; but the trade is conservative
here, as everywhere. Capstan screws are also
of brass always, but the remaining hardware is
either cast-iron (action frames, screws, etc.), or
steel (damper rods, etc.).

Detail Variations. Older grand pianos are of-
ten found (if made prior to about 1890) to have
wooden rockers with short extension rods of wood,
in place of the capstan screw. The method is not
admirable, mainly because it renders the action
less accessible.

Wooden action frames were also common in the
old days, and wooden action rails are still almost
universally used, although modern makers are
beginning to see the advantage of at least support-
ing these rails by metal bars.

The construction of the repetition lever and of
the wippen in general is subject to considerable
variation of practice. Some makers (Steinway,
Schwander) use a single spring, with double or
single bearing. Sometimes the travel of the jack

The Action and Its Regulation. 199

is limited by a metal spoon as shown in Figure 19
(Wessell, Nickel & Gross), and sometimes by a
wooden post (Schwander), whilst in some actions
(Steinway), no adjustable means are considered
necessary. The greater number of modern grand
piano actions are provided with tensioning screws
whereby the strength of the wippen springs may
be adjusted more surely than would be possible by
any method of bending. But older actions are
usually without this adjustment.

Steinway grand pianos are distinguished by the
use of an octagon head screw in place of a capstan
screw, which necessitates the use of a special
wrench for turning them. The same makers use
metal sheathing for their action rails, which are of
special design.

The cushion on the wippen, above which the
hammer is normally held, has given way in some
grand actions to a fixed, independently supported
hammer-rail on which the shanks rest as they do
in an upright. Some of the Schwander actions are
of this type. Strauch Brothers, also, have made
some grand actions like this.

Soft Pedal. These last, however, are made spe-
cially for the purpose of substituting a lift of the
hammer-line by the soft pedal for the usual shift

200 Modern Piano Tuning.

of the key-board. The Isotonic soft pedal action
by Kranich & Bach is of similar type.

Sostenuto Pedal, On most modem grand
pianos, each damper-lever is provided with a
tongue of felt projecting from it. In front of the
line of tongues is a brass flanged rail which can
be rotated by depressing the middle pedal (pro-
vided for that purpose). After a key or keys
have been struck and their dampers raised, the
pedal may be depressed before releasing the keys,
and the flanged rail thus turns, catching the felt
tongues and holding up the dampers. The keys
may then be quitted. This device is useful in get-
ting tone-color and adds to the tonal resources of
the piano most markedly.*

Regulation of the Grand Action. The processes
which together constitute the adjustment or ' ' reg-
ulation" of the grand piano action are not com-
plicated when studied systematically and in order.
To describe them is by no means difficult ; and in-
deed the only difficulty is to get enough prac-
tice to be able readily and rapidly to perform the
various processes. In order to simplify as much

1 Many other small detail variations may be found amongst
the work of individual makers, but for general remarks along
these lines see Chapter X.

The Action and Its Regulation. 201

as possible what follows, I shall simply detail in
order the various steps taken in regulating the
action of the grand piano, so that the reader may
be able to see what is done and why. A first
necessity, however, is some consideration of the
question of action ** touch" considered from the
viewpoint of the pianist.

"Touch." It is important that the pianist
should have a piano with an even feel to the keys,
uniform depth of touch and uniform resistance so
far as is possible. The practice of makers in this
respect has greatly varied since the birth of the
piano, but curiously enough the most modem ideas
in regard to depth and resistance are again vir-
tually the same as those of one hundred years ago,
having descended from the excessive heights at-
tained in the middle nineteenth century, when
piano makers vainly attempted to make pianos
large, heavy and loud enough to suit the piano-
thumping school of musicians, now happily out of
fashion.

Depth of Touch. The pianist considers depth
of touch from the standpoint of convenience. He
wants the touch to be deep enough to give him a
good **feel," and shallow enough to permit of
rapid passage-work. General practice now ac-

202 Modern Piano Tuning.

cords the key a touch-depth (dip of the front end)
of % inch. The bass end may be a little deeper,
but on the whole this is not essential.

Touch-depth, however, the piano maker must
consider in connection with rise of the rear lever
of the key. Moreover, it naturally follows that as
the front dip is to the rear rise, so is the length of
the front lever (front-rail pin to balance-pin) to
the length of the rear lever (balance-pin to cap-
stan). If therefore the requirements of any ac-
tion are such that special height of rise is re-
quired, the position of the balance-pin must be
shifted accordingly. Usually, however, a rise of
Yi inch for the back is found sufficient. Taking
this as a basis, the following simple calculation
gives the other proportion :

Depth of front dip %'\

Height of back rise 14".

Front Lever : Back Lever : : Front dip :
Back Else.

But, % : 1/4 : : 3: : 2.

.'.Front Lever : Back Lever : : 3 : 2.

If, however, the proportions between dip and
rise are altered, so also the length proportions be-
tween front and back lever are affected.

Length of Keys. In grand pianos of normal

The Action and Its Regulation. 203

size the key lengths have finally been settled at
about 15% inches from front rail pin to capstan.
Short grands sometimes have to carry a smaller
key, and in this case, to preserve the true front
dip the proportionate lengths must still be as
above, for if any change is made on the mistaken
idea that some fixed length instead of a fixed pro-
portion is to be followed, the entire key propor-
tions will fall to the ground and the touch will un-
doubtedly be bad. By retaining the proper pro-
portions as indicated above the short key will be
effectual enough, although it must be remembered
that the shorter the key the less the leverage for
an equal touch depth.

Resistance. The practice of the best makers has
finally settled the resistance or touch-weight at 2^
ounces approximately. Some variation between
the extreme bass and treble ends is permissible
and desirable. In fact it would be well to consider
a resistance in the extreme bass of 2% ounces,
graduated to 2% ounces in the middle and to 2^
ounces in the extreme treble. Changes in resist-
ance may be made by drilling the body-wood of
the keys and putting in small round pieces of lead
where required. The piano maker should always
carefully ascertain the weight required to depress

204 Modern Piano Tuning.

each key when the action is in contact with it and
having done this adjust accordingly by putting
lead in the back of the keys to increase the resist-
ance, or in front to lessen it.

Order of Regulating. Following the general
factory practice we may consider the regulation
of the grand piano action in the following order -}

1. Key frame, and keys. Key-shift and soft
pedal.

2. Action.

3. Dampers, damper pedal and sostenuto pedal.
Keys and Key Frame. 1. Keys are removed

from frame, which then is fitted with felt punch-
ings for front and balance rails and strip of cloth
for back-rail.

2. Keys are replaced and eased off, by being
tested for clearance on front and balance rails.
Each key should fall back when lifted, naturally
and readily, but not loosely. Key-pliers are used
for squeezing the bushings wider when needed.
If keys are too loose, bushings may be squeezed to-
gether by punching with a wooden punch.

3. Key-frame is then placed under action {same

1 For the sake of clearness, it will be necessary to include
certain processes actually classified as part of the preliminary
Action-finishing.

The Action and Its Regulation. 205

having been previously adjusted in finishing room
when capstans were placed in each key) and gen-
eral level of key-frame in relation to action is
noted.

4. Action being removed again, a piece of lead
is placed at rear of each key, having same weight
as resistance of action. This holds keys up in
front and down in rear. Keys are then carefully
straightened by knocking over balance-rail pins
slightly when needed, then spaced by bending front
rail pin where needed, and lastly leveled. This
latter operation is performed by putting under
extreme treble and bass keys, over front-rail pin,
wooden block measured exactly equal to calculated
depth of dip. Straight edge is then put over keys
on line immediately above blocks and general level
of keys adjusted up to the extremes. If too high,
key frame may be planed off where balance rail
is screwed in, or if too low, balance rail may be
''built up" by putting strips of cardboard be-
tween balance rail and bottom of key-frame in
same places.

4. Key frame is then replaced in piano with
keys taken out where soft-pedal shifting lever
touches frame. This lever is closely adjusted so
that the key frame moves as soon as pressure is

206 Modern Piano Tuning.

put on pedal. Points of contact are black-leaded
with powdered black-lead and burnished with
heated steel bar. Spring which retracts key frame
is also tested and adjusted if necessary.

Action. 5. Action being replaced on keys, ham-
mers are adjusted so that length of stroke is not
more than 2 inches from end to end. (This is the
action-finisher's work originally and regulator
merely looks it over). Each hammer must then
be adjusted to rest over its cushion about %2 inch.
Capstans are adjusted accordingly and care taken
to see that the hammers are level.

6. Jacks are then adjusted so that hammer trips
up at about %2 inch from the string {here prac-
tice varies but close regulation is desirable). This
is done by turning regulating button of jack.

7. Jack is regulated by turning button and
screw on repetition lever so that jack normally
rests in middle of groove in repetition lever.
Usually a line on groove is marked to show right
place.

8. Back-checks are regulated so that (1) they
stand even and straight in line, (2) catch the ham-
mers firmly without any slippage even on hard
blows and (3) catch hammers when same have
descended on rebound about Ys inch from the

The Action and Its Regulation. 207

strings. Use only proper bending iron or bend-
ing pliers for this work.

9. Eepetition Lever is regulated; (1) spring is
made strong enough to cause the hammer to dance
a little and lift slightly when back-check is re-
leased. Most modern actions have screw tension
adjustment, but otherwise tension may be changed
by bending wires with hook; (2) rear of lever is
set low enough to permit plenty of space between
it and its travel-limiting hook, so that the jack
may rest about Vm" below the level of the grooved
end. This is usually done by means of regu-
lating button (Figure 19) ; (3) height of rise of
repetition lever under hammer-knuckle is regu-
lated by Repetition Lever Regulating Screw
(No. 29 same illustration), so that rise of Lever
is stopped when hammer is still about %2 inch
from the string, or (which is nearly the same in
practice), a little before the jacks trip off; just
enough before to give the jacks about Vs inch lift
by themselves before tripping.

After-Touch. 10. Action and keys being in
piano, keys are tested for evenness of dip. This
is best done by means of wooden block of proper
depth whereby each key may be tested from ex-
treme bass up, by placing block on top of key and

208 Modern Piano Tuning.

then depressing. If block sticks up too high take
out punchings underneath front ; if block sinks be-
low level of key-top put more punchings under-
neath. Paper punchings are used for this
work.

11. Testing for after-touch is then done. After-
touch is the slight lifting of hammers which should
take place when keys are gently released. If
properly regulated, the release of the key imme-
diately releases back-check and repetition lever
lifts hammer slightly. To make after-touch right,
put enough punchings under each key to make
sure that hammers will not release from back
checks except under very hard stroke; and then
take out from this about 3^2 inch punching depth.
This will leave the necessary after-touch.^

Dampers and pedal work. 12. Dampers must
lie square on strings and their wires work freely
in bushings.

13. Each damper lever must be regulated so that
the line of dampers, when lifted by the sustaining
pedal, lifts all together evenly and looking like
one piece.

14. Damper wires must be regulated so that lift

1 It is often necessary and always better, to regulate the black
keys separately and with the white keys removed.

The Action and Its Regulation. 209

of dampers does not exceed /4 inch in bass and a
little less in treble.

15. Damper lever line is to rest above rear of
keys at such a distance that key has performed
about Vs of its dip before dampers lift.

16. Damper lift rail or rod operated by sustain-
ing pedal is to rest closely in contact with damper
levers.

17. Sustaining pedal trap-work is to be regu-
lated to eliminate nearly all lost motion, leaving
just a suspicion for the greater ease of the foot
work.

18. Sostenuto pedal-work is to be regulated so
that felt tongues on damper-levers are level and
are free of flanged rail until same is turned, when
they are caught by same if keys belonging to them
have been depressed and held down.

This is an outline — not entirely perfect, for this
would not be possible in a book — of the process of
regulating grand actions. I now pass to consid-
eration of the action of the upright piano.

The Upright Action. Familiar to most of us
as the upright piano undoubtedly is, one can only
wonder that the stock of public information about
its action is so generally inadequate. It has been
my experience to find that even tuners are by no

210 Modern Piano Tuning.

means guiltless of ignorance in this respect, and
that the real meaning and inner refinement of the
upright action are almost as much a closed book
to many of them as anything else one could men-
tion. Crude and rule-of -thumb methods of regu-
lating and repairing, handed down by tradition
and practiced by men themselves unable to ap-
preciate the piano from the performer's stand-
point, are not calculated to improve either the
durability of the piano or the reputation of the
tuning profession. It is therefore without any
further apology that I devote space to an analysis
of the upright movement as painstaking as that
which we have just finished.

Figure 20 shows the modern upright action, to
which is appended a complete terminology as fol-
lows.

The illustration is of an action by Wessell,
Nickel & Gross of New York.

Distinctive Features of Upright Action. The
upright piano action is in two parts, separated
from each other and only in mechanical contact;
namely the keyboard and the action proper.
These two can therefore be handled separately in
a convenient manner.

The hammer does not fall back by gravity, and

The Action and Its Regulation. 211

so must be assisted by the provision of an en-
tirely new element, the bridal-tape (No. 20), as
well as by the hammer spring (No. 36).

The hammer-line rests against a hammer-rail
and the soft-pedal operates by swinging this rail
to bring the hammers nearer to the strings. This
creates lost motion between capstan and abstract,
which in some actions is taken up by special
devices.

There is no special repetition lever.

Operation of Upright Action. The key being
depressed at its front end, the rear end rises, lift-
ing the abstract (8) and the wippen (13). The
rise of the wippen lifts the jack (17) which swings
the hammer butt (25) carrying the hammer, until
tripped at its knuckle by the button (22). Trip-
ping of the jack throws it out of contact with the
hammer, which moves forward to the string by its
own momentum, and rebounds, assisted by the
spring, till it is caught and held by the back check
(19) working against the back-stop (24). When
the key is released, the hammer is pulled back by
the tape, which also assists in the retraction of the
jack. This latter important part of the process is
further assisted by the peculiar shape of the
leather-covered hammer-knuckle against which the

Figure 20.

212

The Action and Its Regulation. 213

Key.

22.

Regulating button and

Key frame.

screw.

Key lead.

23.

Jack stop rail.

Front rail pin and punch-

24.

Back stop.

ing.

25.

Hammer butt.

Balance rail pin and

26.

Hammer shank.

punching.

27.

Hammer molding.

Back rail cloth.

28.

Hammer top-felt.

Capstan screw.

29.

Hammer under-felt.

Abstract.

30.

Wippen flange.

Abstract lever.

31.

Spoon.

10.

Abstract lever flange.

32.

Middle action-rail.

11.

Lower action rail.

33.

Damper lifting rod.

12.

Action bracket.

34.

Damper lever.

13.

Wippen.

35.

Hammer and damper

14.

Jack flange.

flange.

15.

Jack spring.

36.

Spring rail spring.

16.

Jack loxuckle.

37.

Spring rail.

17.

Jack.

38.

Damper wire.

18.

Bridle wire.

39.

Damper block.

19.

Back check.

40.

Damper head.

20.

Bridle tape.

41.

Damper felt.

21.

Regulating rail.

42.

Action bolt.

■ r^^

'»

lc= ^1

- ^

„.|

"""^

r " 1

214 Modern Piano Tuning.

jack bears. When the key has already risen
enough to bring the parts here described into play
and start them on their arcs of turning, the spoon
(31) presses against the damper lever (34) and
the damper is pushed away from the spring.
When the key is released, the damper is retracted
with it till it against presses against, and damps,
the string.

The action of the upright is somewhat simpler
than that of the grand and the absence of a
repetition lever is felt in the higher finger ac-
tion and less delicate repetition. Nevertheless,
if properly regulated, this action is efficient and
rapid.

Comparison of the Upright with the Grand Ac-
tion. The characteristic feature of the upright
action is the bridle tape. The value of this tape
lies mainly in the slight extra pull it manages to
impart to the hampaer butt when the hammer re-
bounds from the string, and after the back check
has caught the hammer and been released by the
release of the key. The tape would not have any
special value but for the fact that the hammer,
having been caught by the back check, naturally
would hang a little on the release thereof, if it did
not receive the gentle pull caused by the fall of the

The Action and Its Regulation. 215

wippen with which the bridle tape connects it.

The tape is, in fact, to the upright action what
the repetition lever is to the grand. Until these
two features had been devised and applied to their
corresponding actions, the piano was an extremely
imperfect instrument. The modern upright piano
owes its present touch effect to the tape just as
the touch delicacy of the grand is due to the repeti-
tion lever. Of course the grand action is the more
delicate and responsive of the two, for it possesses
the double repetition. This the upright cannot
have, not to mention the fact that the fall of the
hammer through gravity is of course far more
effective than its retraction by springs. The up-
right action blocks more easily than does the
grand, and finger movement must be higher to
secure repetition.

Detail Variations. The metal flange is coming
into its own even more rapidly on the upright ac-
tion than on the grand. The first step in this di-
rection was taken some years ago when Wessell,
Nickel & Gross brought out the continuous brass
plate with flanges, carrying each section of ham-
mers on one plate. This did not prove to be the
required solution, but the individual brass flange
has since come forward and appears to be per-

216 Modern Piano Tuning.

fectly satisfactory. Certainly it does make the
action more rigid and durable.

Metal rails or metal reinforcements to wooden
rails are also coming into use and these are like-
wise an admirable improvement.

Some actions (Schwander) are provided with an
extra spring in the jack, called a repetition spring.
The same makers have eliminated the ordinary
spring rail and in place of it have a separate sup-
port for each spring in the back of the hammer
butt, fastened to a loop cord secured in the flange.

Lost motion attachments are common. These
consist of a mechanical movement whereby the
rise of the hammer-rail, on the depression of the
soft pedal, causes a proportionate lengthening of
the abstract, to fill up the gap which would other-
wise be left between capstan and abstract.

Many attempts have been made at various times
to eliminate the tape and provide for reliable
repetition by other methods. The ideas of Con-
over Brothers, of Luigi Battallia and of many
others might be mentioned, but modern practice
in this respect chiefly centers about the ''Master-
touch" action of Staib-Abendschein and the Am-
mon *'non-blockable" action of Christman. One
principal objection to the tape is its liability to

The Action and Its Regulation. 217

destruction by mice or other domestic pests.
Other upright actions often have props fixed in
the keys instead of the more modern abstract.
These are adjusted by turning the wooden button
up or down on its wire.

Pedal Actions. The soft pedal of the upright
piano merely swings the hammer rail in an arc
so as to bring the hammers nearer the strings.

The damper pedal operates through a damper-
lifting rod (33) whereby the bottoms of the damper
levers are thrown forward, tilting back the
dampers from the strings.

A third pedal is usually found. Sometimes this
operates to draw down a rail from which depends
a strip of thick felt, so as to interpose the felt
between hammers and strings and muffle the tone.
This is called a ''muffler" pedal. Another form
is an auxiliary damper action operating on the
bass dampers only, while another kind still is an
adaptation to the upright of the grand sostenuto
pedal. A fourth and last is a mere duplicate of
the soft pedal. Unhappily the majority of com-
mercial upright pianos have no more to show for
their middle pedal than this blank.

Materials. All that has been said on this sub-
ject in the sections relating to grand actions is ap-

218 Modern Piano Tuning.

plicable to the upright, and I shall therefore con-
tent myself with referring the reader to them,
suggesting also that he study the various repre-
sentative actions he meets with, for the purpose of
discovering at first hand the practical facts of ma-
te-rial and constructional usage as displayed by
manufacturers. In this case, as in all others, prac-
tical first hand knowledge is priceless.

Regulation of Upright Action. Certain parts
of the work of regulation are identical in method
with what we have already learned concerning the
similar processes in the grand action, but the dif-
ferences in design between the two bring about
such differences in parts and functions of parts
that a separate description is necessary every-
where save in one or two instances ; as will now be
seen.

1. Keys. The preliminary work of felting, eas-
ing, leveling and spacing keys is done just as be-
fore described in the sections on the grand action.
This work, in the present case, may be done with-
out removing the action from the keys, so that it
is unnecessary to put lead pieces at the backs of
the keys to hold them up.

2. Hammer-hlow. This is regulated to be about
l%o inches. Regulation is made by putting felt

The Action and Its Regulation. 219

cushion between hammer-rail and action brackets.

3. Lost Motion. Lost motion between capstans
and abstracts is taken up. Correct adjustment is
indicated when the hammers lie freely on the ham-
mer rail, neither forced above it nor with a gap in
the action below them. As long as the back-checks
move without moving hammers, there is lost mo-
tion; but it is advisable to leave a little, a very
little, play, so that the jack is not hard up against
the hammer knuckle.

4. Back-checks. Back-checks are straightened
by means of the back-check bender or a pair of
bending pliers, so that each check lies squarely in
front of its corresponding stop.

5. Back-checks are lined up so that each check
catches back-stop when hammer has descended
about one-third of its total drop on rebound.

6. Let-Off. Jacks are adjusted for the trip of
the hammers, which is done by turning regulating
screws, using a regulating screw driver. Ham-
mers should trip at a distance of from ^ inch
(bass end) to Vs inch (treble end) from the
strings.

7. Bridle-Tapes. Bridle-Tapes are adjusted to
lift wippens evenly and all together. This is
tested by hammer rail up and down, so that bridle

220 Modern Piano Tuning.

tapes lift and drop accordingly. Adjustment is
made on bridle-wires.

8. Bridle-wires are adjusted so that they do not
knock against back-check wires and lie straight
and square.

9. Dampers. Dampers are adjusted so that
they lie square against strings.

10. Rise of dampers is adjusted by moving
damper-rod back and forth, so that it may be seen
whether all dampers begin to move together. Ad-
justment is made by bending spoons. Dampers
should lift not more than about M inch from the
strings and their movement should begin when
key is about one-third of the way down.

11. Sustaining Pedal. The sustaining pedal ac-
tion is adjusted to lift the damper-rod promptly.
Adjustment is made on the trap-work at the bot-
tom of the piano or between top of pedal rod and
damper rod.

12. Soft Pedal. Adjustment is made at ham-
mer-rail.

13. Middle Pedal. See supra in reference to
grand actions.

14. Touch. All instructions regarding laying
of touch in the grand action apply here to the up-
right.

The Action and Its Regulation. 221

The foregoing descriptions are sufficient for the
purposes of this book. It has been my intention
mainly to give the reader a good working knowl-
edge of the grand and upright piano actions in the
light of their functions. Purposely I have given
most space to the grand because that one is least
understood; whilst everything said about its prin-
ciples can at once be applied to the upright. The
upright action is a series of turning points, just as
is the other. The upright has almost the same
parts and the same adjustment. But uprights are
more familiar and hence better understood.

Regulating Tools. It is impossible to do any
good work in piano action regulation without ap-
propriate tools. The most important of these,
with which the student should not fail to provide
himself, are : ^

Long and short narrow-blade screw drivers

Very fine screw driver, for grand actions

Regulating screw driver

Key pliers

Bending pliers

Small regulating screw driver for grand actions

Key spacer

Damper bending iron

Spring adjusting hook

222 Modern Piano Tuning.

Spoon bending iron

Parallel pliers

Capstan screw iron

Hexagonal wrench for Steinway actions.

Professional regulators, who operate in piano
factories, use, of course, a much wider selection of
tools, often including many devised by their own
ingenuity. But the traveling tuner cannot expect
to carry an arsenal of tools with him, nor indeed
to burden himself with one single not actually in-
dispensable piece. Yet the selection suggested
above while it may at first seem formidable in
quantity, really represents an irreducible mini-
mum, below which the judicious worker cannot and
will not, go.

Chapter IX.

THE HAMMER AND ITS RELATION TO TONE.

The hammer is the ''characteristic" of the
piano ; its sign and symbol. It was exactly the in-
vention of the hammer, and of a movement to con-
nect it with the key, that made the harpsichord
into the pianoforte. The object of the labors
which led Cristofori to his epochal application of
a principle until then regarded as practically un-
realizable, was tonal gradation. He sought a keyed
stringed instrument of music susceptible to dynamic
control through variations in the stroke of the
fingers upon its digitals. He was looking for
something better than the harpsichord could give
him; something better than the light thin tinkle
which represents the ultimate achievement of any
harpsichord, no matter how beautifully made.
No increase in the vigor with which the harpsi-
chord key is depressed will do m'ore than gently
pluck the string. Thin, rippling, tinkly, the tone
of the harpsichord and of its kindred claviers
could not always suffice for the full satisfaction

223

224 ' Modern Piano Tuning.

of musical art. True, the harpsichord persisted
for nearly a hundred years after Cristofori be-
gan his work in the little shop among the outbuild-
ings of the Medici Palace at Florence ; but on the
day he produced his martello ^ and the crude move-
ment which connected it with the key, not only
was the piano born, but the harpsichord was
doomed. Henceforward, percussion instead of
plectral vibration was to be the characteristic of
keyed stringed instruments.

The two hundred years that have elapsed have
brought no change in principle, although they have
seen much improvement in detail. The piano
hammer remains precisely what it was. Changes
in the materials of which it is made and improve-
ments in the mianner of its manufacture have been
produced as part of a gradual general refine-
ment of our conceptions of the piano and of
its true place. These conceptions have brought
about improvements in manufacture, which have
been accompanied by parallel improvements in the
machinery of manufacture. But the principle re-
mains to-day as it was two hundred years ago.

Function of the Hammer. Fundamentally, the
piano hammer consists of a rounded cushion of

1 i.e., hammer.

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 225

some flexible resilient material mounted on a
wooden molding and provided with a right angle
stem, the other end of which is connected with the
piano action. The object of the hammer is to ex-
cite the strings into vibrations. We know that
string excitation may be carried out in many dif-
ferent ways. When percussion is the method, two
elements immediately present themselves for con-
sideration. The string may be struck with greater
or less vigor, whilst also the manner in which the
blow is delivered, as regards place on the string,
nature of the material, and so on, may be varied
so as to produce variations in the color of the
tone. In short, the hammer not only may control
the comparative strength of the emitted tone but
also to a large extent its color.

Now we have already discussed at considerable
length the influence on tonal character involved in
choice of the point of contact of the hammer with
the string. The reader will now wish to consider
questions as to the material of the hammer, and
the methods of treating this material so as to
produce in each individual case the best tone. It
will be advisable to consider the question of ma-
terial and workmanship first.

Material. The first hammers were wedge-

226 Modern Piano Tuning.

shaped wooden blocks covered with hard leather
and topped with a softer skin, like that of the elk.
In the time of Beethoven the covering material
was still leather, although an oval form had been
developed. The felt covering which has long sup-
erseded all others was developed during the nine-
teenth century, principally through the work of
manufacturers in the United States, where ma-
chines for covering the moldings were first suc-
cessfully made and used. The present hammer
consists of a wooden molding of approximately
pointed shape over which is stretched a strip of
hard felt known as the under felt. This is glued
in place and over it is fastened in the same way
a thicker strip of softer felt called the top felt.
The two strips of felt are cut oif large sheets, and
glued on to the hammer moldings in one piece ; the
moldings themselves being also in one piece.
Thus a whole set of hammer molding is turned out
complete, and receives a strip of under felt nearly
as wide as the whole set of hammers, which in
turn receives a strip of top felt. The solid set
is then taken out of the machines and sawed into
separate hammers.

The sheets of felt are of different weights, run-
ning from 12 to 18 lbs. per sheet or even higher.

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 227

Hammers are known as 12-lb., 14-lb. or 18-lb. ham-
mers according to the weight of the sheet from
which their top felt is taken.

The sheets themselves are prepared in tapering
form so that the thickness runs from greater to
less in a constant gradation from one end to the
other. In this way is preserved the gradation of
thickness in the hammer-felt from bass to treble
of the piano. Bass strings, of course, require the
heavy hammers and treble strings the light ones.

Felt. The peculiarities of hammer construc-
tion must be considered definitely if we wish to
become acquainted with the reasons for the some-
times peculiar behavior of hammers under usage.
In the first place, it should be observed that felt is
a very different thing from woven or spun fabric.
Felt is the result of pressing together layers of
wool in such a way that the fibres, which are ser-
rated or jagged, fasten into each other and form a
solid mass, which cannot be torn apart and which
possesses in a high degree the qualities of flexi-
bility and resiliency, together with strength and
durability. At the same time however, it must be
remembered that felt is a material which is really
at its worst when under tension ; yet hammer-felt
is continually in tension after the hammer is

228 Modern Piano Tuning.

manufactured. The felt sheet is stretched over a
wooden molding, with the result that the whole
outer surface of the sheet is subjected to consid-
erable tensional strain, which tends constantly to
pull the fibres apart; fibres which have in effect
merely been pressed together in the process of
felting and which therefore are susceptible of rup-
ture under strain.

This peculiarity of the felt hammer is seen in
sharp relief when a piano has been used any length
of time. But even before this, even in the fac-
tory, the processes of tone regulation invariably
expose this imperfection. In order to understand
how this is so, however, we must see what that
process is and how the condition of the felt af-
fects tonal result.

Tonal Properties of the Hammer. An ideal
piano tone-color can, of course, be expressed in
terms of a definite wave-form. This form, we can
safely assert, differs not in essentials in any
pianos made anywhere. All piano makers of all
nations are agreed, generally speaking, upon the
kind of wire used, the points of contact, the em-
ployment of felt hammers and the general taste
of the modern ear for piano tone; or rather for
what we have come to accept as good tone for a

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 229

piano. Now experiment shows that a wave-form
produced by the vibration of a strong fundamental
with the following five partials in diminishing
strength and if possible with no seventh and no
partial above the eighth, represents the ideal. At
least, the very best piano tone — the kind of tone
which is universally accepted as refined, pure and
noble, is a tone which, when analyzed, is seen to
be expressible in these terms. Such a wave-form
gives such a tone.

But the practical requirements of piano making
render the attainment of this simple object very
difficult. In the first place, it is not regarded as
practical to place the hammer contact-point at Vi
of each string-length throughout ; though why this
should not be practical it is very hard to say.
However, that piano makers will not do this
is the key to the further fact that the seventh par-
tial is an ugly and perpetual reminder, in the com-
plex of piano tone, that science and piano making
do not yet quite agree. In the second place, the
high tension and density of the strings themselves
are very favorable to the production of the higher
partials, especially those above the ninth. If the
hammer struck the string at H, the seventh partial
and its multiples would be abolished. If also the

230 Modern Piano Tuning.

wire were on the whole softer and the tension
lower, than are usual, the 9th and high partials
would diminish in amplitude and consequently
their influence on tone would be diminished.^

Now it is plain that the hammer must also enter
into the complex as an influence of more or less
power. Putting aside the question of contact
points, which after all is a matter for the scale
draftsman and not for the hammer-maker or the
tuner, we are reduced to three considerations:
(1) the hardness or softness of the underfelt; (2)
the hardness or softness of the top-felt and (3)
the size and shape of the hammer. Let us con-
sider these.

Under felt. It is of course plain that the under
felt must be relatively firm and hard, simply be-
cause the necessity exists of interposing an effec-
tive cushion between the hard wooden molding and
the contact surface. It is equally clear that the
function of the underfelt is, just as much, that of
"backing up" the softer top felt.

Top felt. The function of the top felt is to in-
flict the blow on the string in such a way as to

1 The published proceedings of the Cliicago Conference of Piano
Technicians for 1917 contain some interesting discussions of this
point.

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 231

produce the necessary wave-form required. Now,
it is plain that the softer the top felt may be, the
less quickly will it rebound from the surface of
the struck string. Now a soft top felt of course
will be one in which the fibres will be relatively
more detached on the top ; a condition partly aris-
ing from the fact that the top felt is stretched at
high tension over the under felt and molding.
The cushion of soft fibres thus formed will tend to
cling to the surface of the string a little longer
than if it were perfectly smooth and hard. This
clinging will have the effect of damping off at
least some of the high partials which originate
around the point of contact of the string. When
it is understood that the hammer, even when new,
presents a relatively blunt surface to the string,
the above can easily be realized.
Soft and Hard Felt. It now becomes plain that :

1. The softer the top felt the less complex will
be the wave form and the more mellow the tone
quality, due to damping of high dissonant par-
tials.

2. The more sharply pointed the contact sur-
face, the smaller is the actual mass of felt
presented to the string and the fewer are the up-
per partials around the contact point to be damped

232 Modern Piano Tuning.

by the contact. Hence, a pointed hammer, other
things being equal, means a less mellow and more
complex tone.

3. The greater the velocity of travel to the
string, the more rapid will be the rebound, since
action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Therefore the harder the hammer-stroke the less
mellow will the tone quality be, other things being
equal.

4. For the above reason, also, a lighter hammer
will rebound more quickly than a heavy hammer
on a light hammer-stroke and the heavy hammer
will rebound more quickly on a stroke powerful
enough to move its weight freely and derive the
velocity-advantage thereof.

TJie Voicing problem. The business of the
voicer is to exert such influence as can be exerted
by treatment of the hammer-felt, upon the tone-
quality of the piano. Fundamentally, the tone-
quality is settled long before the voicer sees the
piano. The design of the scale, the general con-
struction of the piano, the choice of striking points
for the hammer; these and many other details
have already determined the tonal quality before
any treatment of the felt is considered. The
sole business of the voicer then is to smooth

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 233

out, to improve if lie can, what has already
been set forth; and if he cannot improve, at
least to put the best appearance upon things and
to make sure that the piano goes out into the world
under the most favorable tonal conditions. That
is the voicer's business, and he effects his results
by the processes of hammer-treating which I de-
scribe below.

Prior Condition of the Hammer felt. In the
first place, let us keep in mind that the top felt is
less than an inch deep over the under felt and
molding at the point of contact in the bass, and
tapers down until it is hardly thicker than the
felt of a hat, at the highest treble. This top felt
is fastened over the under felt and molding in such
a way as to stretch the upper surface whilst com-
pressing the parts nearest the under felt. Now it
is plain that a structure like this must be more or
less uneven in texture and certainly rough on its
surface. It is also easy to see that any attempt
to remedy these conditions through a process of
working up the texture of the felt must take into
consideration that the cushion is in a condition of
both tension and compression, with a constant
tendency towards pulling apart its fibres and dis-
rupting its structure.

234 Modern Piano Tuning.

Smoothing the Surface. Now it is obvious that
before any sort of judgment can be formed rightly
regarding what may have to be done to a set of
hammers in order to provide the best possible tonal
result, the surface of the top felt must be made as
smooth and as even as possible. This the voicer
does by a process generally called ''filing." A
strip of cigar box wood is taken, about wide enough
to cover the surface of a hammer when laid over
it, with some space to spare, but not wide enough
to interfere with the hammers on either side.
This strip may be made of any suitable wood, but
the kind spoken of is particularly convenient and
easy to obtain. The strip is made about seven
inches long. Several of these strips are obtained
and covered with sandpaper by the simple ex-
pedient of cutting a strip of the paper to the same
width and twice the length and then gluing it over
the one edge and down both sides. The loose ends
are trimmed off where the hand grasps the instru-
ment. Some of the strips are covered with No. 2,
some with No. 1 and some with No. 0, sandpaper.

Filing. The ** sandpaper file," as it is called, is
used for the purpose of rubbing away the rough
uneven particles and fibres of the felt so as to
produce an uniform surface. The technic of the

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 235

operation may easily be acquired, but practice and
patience are requisites to success. The action is
laid on its back away from the piano, if this be an
upright, or is taken out with its keys if it be that
of a grand, and placed on a table or bench. The
operator sits with the backs of the hammers near-
est to him. Taking one of the hammers between
his thumb and first finger he raises it above the
line of the others and grasping the file in the other
hand so as to leave as much of the sandpaper avail-
able as he conveniently can, he draws the file along
the striking surface of the felt, beginning at the
bottom of the under side of the hammer and draw-
ing the file in a series of light strokes towards the
top or crown where contact is made with the string,
leaving the actual crown untouched. In this man-
ner he smooths out the surface, rubbing away the
rough outside crust of the felt and drawing this
latter up to a curl at the crown. By so doing the
position of the crown is indicated and any flatten-
ing of it avoided. Then the hammer is attacked
in the same way on its other side and the smooth-
ing out again terminated at the crown, so that now
the hammer looks like a bald head with a little tuft
of hair at the very top ; a sort of Mohammedan top-
knot. In doing this apparently quite simple work,

236 Modern Piano Tuning.

however, it is well to remember that (1) the strokes
must be made with the file absolutely square on
the surface of the felt, or else the result will be a
crooked surface. (2) The file must be drawn just
with enough pressure to take off the rough outer
crust or skin but not hard enough to make dents in
the surface or disturb the shape. Careful prac-
tice is therefore necessary, as well as a good deal
of patience. Moreover, the high treble hammers
which have so little felt on them must be very care-
fully treated, or the felt may be all filed away,
leaving a bare spot showing the wood underneath.
This first smoothing is done with the No. 2 paper.
First Needling. The voicer now turns to the
needles. Having given the surface of the ham-
mer a preliminary smoothing out, he must attempt
to produce an uniform texture in the interior.
The object of so doing is to furnish a cushion for
the immediate contact with the string, which shall
be relatively resilient and uniformly yielding,
against the harder under felt and still harder
molding. This upper cushion however, must not
be mushy at the crown or actual place of contact,
nor must its surface be broken up and its fibres
disrupted by unscientific jabbing with needles.
On the contrary, the object is to work the in-

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 237

side of the felt so as to leave the outer surfaces as
far as possible intact, whilst conforming to the re-
quirements noted here.

The voicer therefore uses a needle holder con-
taining three No. 6 needles, set in a row and pro-
jecting not more than one-half inch from the
handle. This handle should be of such thickness
that when grasped as if it were a dagger with the
point of the blade (the needles) downwards, it
may be held without cramping the muscles. Thus
grasped, it is used to stab the felt, in the manner
following :

The hammer to be treated should be supported
upon a block laid under its stem, so as to raise
it above the line of hammers. Such a block is
usually made wide enough to support three ham-
mers at a time. The needle is firmly grasped in
the right hand whilst the left hand steadies the
hammer. Strokes are made by firmly pressing the
needles down into the felt, on each side of the
crown alternately, as far as they will go, not stab-
bing hard but pressing firmly, avoiding the crown
and gradually working down on each side thereof
to the very bottom of the top felt. The needles
should enter the felt like the spokes of a wheel, of
which the under felt represents the hub.

238 Modern Piano Tuning.

It is necessary for the voicer to estimate from
time to time the condition of the felt and the
progress of his work. At the beginning, before
he has filed the hammers, he will of course have
tested the general condition of the tone and will
also have estimated the hardness of the felt. His
work must continue until the interior of each ham-
mer is in an uniformly resilient condition, with-
out uneven lumps anywhere, but especially with-
out any picking up of the surface or tearing of
the fibres, and without touching either the crown
or the under felt.

"Picking Up." The abominable practice of
"picking up" the felt by digging with the needles
as if one were digging potatoes out of the crown
of the hammer, cannot be too strongly condemned.
It does the very thing which should not be done ;
weakens the already tightly stretched sheet of felt
by breaking the fibres and crushing the structure
at its surface. The consequence is that the entire
crown is soon broken up, its indispensable firm-
ness destroyed and contact made mushy and in-
effective, whilst the interior of the hammer is left
virtually in its original state. Thus the purpose
of voicing is entirely missed. The needle-work
should be done as indicated and in no other way ;

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 239

continuing until it appears by the *'feel" of the
felt that each hammer is well worked inside.

Trimming the Crown. The voicer now trims off
the felt tuft or "top-knot" on the crown of each
hammer with his sandpaper file and replaces the
action in the piano to test the tone. It will then
be found, probably, that the quality is more or less
mellow, but that there is much unevenness, some
hammers being harder than others. The voicer
therefore tests the tone quality by first running
over the piano, a few hammers at a time, with a
soft touch and then in the same way with a hard
touch. The tone quality ought to be the same in
both cases. Also the tone throughout should be
of even mellowness. To remedy the unevenness
the voicer uses his needles as before on the faulty
hammers, again avoiding the crown, until the tone
quality is evened up on a moderate touch. He
then tries each hammer on a hard stroke and if
the tone quality hardens when the stroke of the
key is very strong, the voicer takes a needle holder
containing two % inch fine needles and with these
takes a few ''deep stitches," as they are called,
down into the top felt ; avoiding the under felt and
the crown. This will remedy the trouble, which

240 Modern Piano Tuning.

was due to the interior not having been worked
sufficiently.

Second Smoothing. The hammers are now
smoothed again, with finer paper on the file, and
any specially hard hammers that may have been
noted are needle-worked until they are in good
shape. The action is then replaced in the piano.

The '*Dead" Tone. If the work has now been
done rightly, the tone will be mellow and even on
all kinds of touch, but with a sort of ^'deadness."
One feels that it needs to be livened up ; and this
can be accomplished in the following manner :

Ironing. The action being again taken out, each
hammer is carefully ironed with a hot iron. This
tool is best made from an old l^/^ inch chisel, of
which the blade has been cut off below the edge.
Let this be heated until a drop of water touched to
it evaporates and then let each hammer be well
pressed with this on both sides. One side is held
with the hand whilst the iron is pressed into the
other side, working so as to direct the pressure
upwards towards the crown and bring the felt in
the same direction. This is done on both sides
of each hammer until the felt is well scorched and
blackened.

The file is then applied again and the scorched

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 241

felt cleaned off. The action is replaced in the
piano and if the work has been well done the tone
has been ''livened up" and made clear.

The Crown Stitch. If there is any unevenness
still to be noted in the tone quality, or especially
if any hardness be observed anywhere, one or two
gentle pressures into the felt, down through the
crown with a single fine 1-inch needle, will remedy
the trouble.

This, or something equivalent to it, is the proc-
ess of voicing as carried out in the best factories.

Qualifications of the Voicer. A good ear for
tone-quality is the principal qualification neces-
sary for the voicer. The mechanical technic is
soon acquired when the necessary feeling is there.
To know what are the physical requirements of
piano tone is of course the business of the de-
signer, just as the same man should also know
how to insist on the various works of construction
being carried out according to his prepared de-
signs; but even so the voicer himself should be
equally scientific and equally able to take upon
himself the function of a critic.

For instance, the voicer may perceive that the
striking distance is somewhat wrong, and in that
case it is his duty to insist on changes being made

242 Modern Piano Tuning.

which will remedy the conditions. It is his duty
to watch carefully all points of the design and
construction which have relation to tone, and to
suggest such improvements as his own knowledge
leads him to discern. These are counsels of per-
fection, but they are necessary nevertheless.

A fine ear for tone-quality may be acquired by
patient study of the physics of piano construction
and by constant practice in the art of voicing.
No other possible road can be recommended or
even suggested. The aim and end of voicing is
to make the piano sing beautifully, and only con-
stant work on the piano makes this idea possible
of realization in one 's mind ; an indispensable pre-
liminary to its realization in concrete form.

The Ideal. The ideal piano tone is that in which
a wave form excluding the seventh and all par-
tials above the eighth as far as possible shall be
evoked uniformly under all conditions of touch.
It is the object of the piano hammer to make this
tone possible ; and of the voicer to carry out the
technical processes necessary to prepare the ham-
mer for its tonal work.

The matter of repairing old hammers, and cog-
nate matters relating to the care of the hammer
in used pianos, are discussed in the next chapter.

The Hammer and Its Relation to Tone. 243

The rules here laid down for the work of voicing
are of course based on the practice of factories;
and the tuner who studies this chapter is expected
to understand that his practice must be modified
in accordance with the condition in each case.
Old pianos cannot always be treated exactly as
described in this chapter, although every one of
the rules and directions here given for each of the
processes described and explained, is to be fol-
lowed, at all times. This is important: to follow
the entire process may sometimes be out of the
question, but every time a needle or a file or an
iron is used, the directions given above should be
remembered ; and, as far as possible, followed out.
Care of Tools. One point remains. In using
his tools the voicer should be careful especially
about keeping the sand-paper files always covered
with fresh paper, and about renewing the needles
whenever they become dull at the points. Worn
sand-paper and blunt needles prevent good work
and cause waste of both time and energy.

Chapter X.

REPAIB OF THE PIANO.

Definition. Piano repairing, for the purpose of
the present chapter, is held to include all the work
that the tuner is called on to do on upright or
grand pianos after they have taken their places
in the purchasers ' homes. In chapters which have
gone before I have said a good deal about the
technical processes of piano construction and ad-
justment, but these remarks have been concerned
with the piano in course of manufacture. The
special subject of repair and adjustment of used
pianos deserves and requires a special chapter.

Square Pianos. The square piano is obsolete,
but I have included at the end of this chapter some
brief remarks on certain peculiarities of these old
instruments.

Classification of the Subject. In order to make
the subject more intelligible, I have adopted the
following classification, marking out the subject in
subdivisions and discussing the particular topic

244

Repair of the Piano. 245

of adjustments and repairs specifically for eacli.
(1) Tuning pins, wrest plank and strings, (2)
sound board and bridges, (3) action and keys and
hammers, (4) pedal action and trap-work, (5) var-
nish.

Tuning-pins and Wrest-planh. Old pianos
often suffer from what may be called a sort of
general break-down of structure and this is es-
pecially noticeable in the wrest plank or tuning
pin block and in the frame work which supports
the same. One symptom of such troubles is found
in loose tuning pins. Sometimes old pianos can-
not be drawn up to pitch without breaking strings ;
or again often they will not stand in tune even
when their strings are pulled up.

1. Loose pins. Tuning pins, of course, are held
by the frictional resistance they develop against
the cross-banded wood of the wrest-plank. If the
wrest-plank holes have been worn through long
use and much tuning, the pins will very likely be
too loose for effective resistance to the string-pull.
In this case, the obvious remedy is to hammer them
a little farther into the block. If, however, this
does not effect the required remedy, the tuner
should either insert a larger pin or else put in a
metal friction tuning pin sleeve. This consists of

246 • Modern Piano Tuning.

a thin fluted brass tube, fitting over the tuning pin
and driven with it into the wrest plank hole. A
worn hole can be filled up in this way and a com-
plete new surface provided for the old pin to work
in. A pin thus treated will tune perfectly, stand
in tune for a long time and eliminate all driving
of the pin or other make-shifts.

2. '* Jumping" pins. These may also be rem-
edied by the use of the above mentioned device,
or else by the expedient of removing the defective
pin or pins, and blowing a little powdered chalk
into the wrest-plank hole. The cause is usually
grease or oil which has soaked into the wrest-plank
through some carelessness on the tuner's part;
thus producing one of the most annoying of piano
troubles. Pins that jump cannot be manipulated
in fine tuning, and much the same is true of pins
that are too tight.

3. Broken Pins. The best way to handle a pin
which has been broken off at the eye is with the
tuning pin extractor, which is a short steel head
like that of a tuning hammer, but provided with
a reversed thread tapped in it. The extractor is
placed on a handle of its own or can be had to fit
on to a tuning or T-hammer. It is worked by
screwing it down reverse way on to the broken

Repair of the Piano. 247

stump of the tuning pin. This cuts a thread on
the stump and grips it tightly enough to enable
the operator to pull it out of the wrest-plank, which
is done by gently turning it in the plank hole un-
til it is loosened enough. One must be careful not
to get the head so firmly fastened into the stump
of the pin that it cannot be unscrewed therefrom.
It is best, in fact, to turn back on the pins a Kttle
way after starting the thread and to keep on doing
this from time to time whilst the thread is being
cut.

4. Wrest plank holes split. The holes in the
wrest plank in old pianos sometimes are split
across the mouth and it is occasionally necessary
to block them up and re-bore them. In doing this,
maple dowels should be used for the plugs, which
are driven in with glue. The hole is first reamed
out somewhat and a dowel driven in to fit tightly,
so that when the hole is again bored for re-inser-
tion of the pin there will be enough dowel left to
act as a bushing all around.

5. Wrest plank split. It is better not to touch
wrest planks that are split unless one is very sure
of what one is doing. Old pianos with open wrest
planks sometimes give way at the gluing between
the wrest plank and the back posts ; that is to say

248 Modern Piano Tuning.

along a line parallel with the hammers from bass
to treble, so that the entire wrest plank pulls away
from the back, carrying the strings and tuning pins
forward with it. If such a case is met with the
tuner may sometime be able to repair the plank as
follows : Loosen up all strings, screw wrest plank
back into position by hand screws, and leave same
tightened in place. Eemove all lag-screws. Bore
out lag-screw holes right through wrest plank and
out at other side of back. Procure threaded
square-head bolts of suitable diameter to fill lag-
screw holes and long enough to stick out at other
side, together with washers for head and tail of
same and nuts to tighten at back. Have at least
five such bolts and if there are not enough lag-
screw holes for this purpose, bore out extra holes
through plate and wrest-plank if necessary to af-
ford further protection. Loosen hand-screws.
Pour^glue (hot) along and into the crack between
back of plank and back post of piano. Screw up
hand-screws again. Insert bolts with washers on
at heads, driving them well through till threaded
ends emerge at back. Put on washers and nuts
at back and turn same down as far as they will
go. Tighten hand-screws further to take up slack
when bolts are turned in. Leave hand-screws on

Repair of the Piano. 249

about four hours. Then take screws off, tighten
bolts further if nuts will turn, clean off glue, file
off ends of bolts or cut them off with cold chisel
and file clean, if they stick out too far, draw up
strings again, tune. This method will often suc-
ceed perfectly. Don't try to use liquid glue.

6. Strings Rusted. Do not rub oil on strings if
they are rusted. They may be cleaned by rubbing
with end of a hannner-stem dipped in whiting,
using alcohol to moisten. Eust at the bearings
near upper bridge or on the agraffes or on the
belly-bridge pins or at the hitch-pins may some-
times be remedied by the use of a little oil care-
fully brushed on. But the use of oil on wire is
not generally permissible.

7. Tuning pins rusted. The coils of strings
around tuning-pins can be cleaned, as well as the
pins themselves, by the use of a string and pin
polisher, a device whereby a rag carrying metal
polish is pushed in and around the coils where the
hand alone cannot go.

8. Strings false. False beats have already been
referred to {supra, Chapter II), but the tuner
will often find that his ingenuity is strained
to overcome the clashing between several strings,
each of which generates false beats. It is some-

250 Modern Piano Tuning.

times possible to tune one string against the other,
as it were, so as to play off one set of false beats
against another. In bad cases, remove the old
wire and string.

9. Bass strings "Dead." Bass strings some-
times go ''dead," losing all their beauty of tone
and emitting a dull hollow sound. Try loosening
string, putting hook in hitch-pin eye, twisting
string a few times and replacing as twisted. This
will often take up a loosening in the covering wire
that is a frequent cause of dead tone. In bad
cases, remove and replace with new strings.

10. Bass strings rattle. This is usually through
loosening of the covering wire or of the pins on
sound-board bridge. (See page 252.) Remedy
accordingly.

11. Treble strings rattle. Causes are as above.
Sometimes pressure bar is loose, but be wary of
tightening too much.

12. Obtaining new bass strings. Bass strings
must be made to order. In getting new ones, send
along old strings, whether one, a few, or a whole
set.

13. Defects of iron plate. Apart from screw-
ing down the bolts on an unstrung piano the tuner

Repair of the Piano. 251

can do virtually nothing with defective plates save
send them to the factory. Broken plates can be
re-welded by the oxy-acetylene process.

Sound-Board and Bridges. 14. Sound-hoard
split. Small splits are not dangerous and do not
affect tone unless they cause the board to loosen
at the edges. Splits are caused by alternate com-
pression and expansion of the wood due to
weather and cognate conditions. If it is neces-
sary to repair a split, open same up with sharp
knife till it is even from end to end, and insert a
''shim" or short strip of sound-board lumber,
which may be obtained in quantities from any fac-
tory, using hot glue and driving well in. Shims
I are triangular in cross section and are driven in
sharp edge do^\^l. When dry, they must be
trimmed off and smoothed down.

15. Ribs loose. Sound-board ribs are glued in
place. If they spring out of place they must be
screwed down by drilling small hole into rib from
front of sound-board and then driving screw from
same side into rib, through the board, with a
bridge button at head of screw to take up uneven
thrust. Glue brushed over surface of board
where rib has sprung also helps screw to hold.

252 Modern Piano Tuning,

16. Sound-hoard rattles. Usually in grand
pianos the trouble is that something has dropped
onto the board. Get a long strip of steel like a cor-
set steel, fasten little pad of cloth on one end and
explore surface of sound-board theremth, thus
moving dust and grit, pins, pennies, etc. In the\
upright piano, the fault is usually looseness Af|
bridges, or splits. Of course these same (jondi-,
tions occur in the grand piano to(

17. Bridges rattle. Stpin'g^s rattle cm, bridges
when pins are loQser^ Drive pins in furtnar and
file over if necessary. In bad cases put in longer
pins. If bridge is split, saw out split section to
depth of bottom of pins, and send to facfory.
New part will be returned bored and pinned, ^eady
to be put back in place, which should be done with
glue and screws. Bridges also rattle when but-
tons behind are loose or when they have sprung
from surface of sound-board. Re^iedies are
obvious. ' '^

18. Bass bridge loose. Bass bridges sometimes
come away from the sound-board, especially when
they are of the extension variety. If extensioi
bass bridge splits in half, remove bass strings and
re-fasten with glue and screws.

Repair of the Piano.

253

Action, Keys and Hammers. 19. Defects of up-
right action.

Flanges rattle.

Flanges being loose, ham-
mers "click" when
striking strings.

Hammers "click" when
striking strings.

Hammers loose on cen-
ters.

Hammers don't strike
squarely.

Center bushings worn.

Centerpins too tight.

Bridle tapes missing.

Bridles squeak on wires.

Tighten.
Tighten.

Hammer heads loose on stems, back-
stop stems loose in back-stops, ham-
mer stems loose in hammer butts.
Remedy : — re-glue.

If center is split, put in new ham-
mer butt. If pin is loose in flange,
use larger pin or new flange. Tight-
en flange. — — -..

Stems are twisted. Heat stems with
alcohol lamp and bend hammer
heads backward into position.

Cut strip of bushing cloth triangular
in shape, coming to point at apex.
Twist same to shape of cone, and
spread on some glue. Push point
in through flange holes whence old
bushings have been removed. Pull
through as far as required. Then
cut off bushing cloth, trim and let
dry. This can be done on several
flanges at once.

Push pin in and out a few times, or
try smaller pin. Don't ream bush-
ing if you can help it. Don't oil
bushings.

Usually this means mice. Cut away
old stumps of tape and insert new
tapes with tape inserter. If no in-
serter is available, cut groove in
bottom of butt, near where tape
goes in, with hack saw, fold tape
over and glue in groove. See that
length is right.

Remove from bridle wires, clean off
all rust. Replace.

254

Modern Piano Tuning.

Keys stick when de-
pressed.

Keys stick on balance
rail.

Keys rattle and shake.

Keys sunk in middle.

Keys rub in front.
Keys sink.
Key Level uneven.
Lost motion.
Back checks block.
Hammers block.
Repetition bad.
Dampers buzz on strings
Dampers don't rise.
Bass dampers catch.
Jack action feeble.

Ease front rail mortise with key-
pliers.
Ease balance rail mortise.

Re-bush mortises, using bushing cloth
and wooden plug to hold cloth
whilst drying. New key top but-
tons can be had in sets for old
keys.

Replace worn punchings on balance
rail and re-level.i If necessary,
build up key-frame with card-board
under balance rail.

Re-space and straighten.

See Chapter VIII (regulating). 2

Straighten on strings.

Bend damper spoons.

Straighten dampers and re-bend wires.

Strengthen springs under jacks.

20. Defects of grand action. Nearly all the
above remarks on the upright action apply also to
the grand, but the following additional instruc-
tions are also useful.

Hammers out of line.
Hammers don't check.
Hammers re-bound too

high.
Hammers strike loosely.

Hammers squeak.

Re-space.

Re-bend back checks.

Regulate repetition lever to trip a
little lower.

Contact roller Tmder hammer butt
is flattened. Re-leather.

Contact roller worn bare. Springs in
action worn through felt bushings.
Rust on springs. Remedy accord-
ingly-

iSee pages 20.5 and 218.
2 Pages 218-219.

Repair of the Piano. 255

Dampers stick. Bushings in rail are swelled.

Dampers don't damp. Straighten on strings, clean felt, regu-

late fall.

Keyboard rattles. " Key blocks not tight down. Or key-

frame warped. In latter case, glue
cardboard between frame and key-
bed.

21. Trap work in upright pianos. Old style
wooden trap work often shakes, rattles and suf-
fers from lost motion. Use black-lead for squeaks
between springs and wood, and soap for trap-pins.
Oil pedal bearings when same are of metal and
take up lost motion at adjusting points on trap
work. See especially whether soft pedal rod
shakes at top or rattles. This is a common de-
fect. Use felt punchings for taking up lost mo-
tion where no screw adjustment exists. Vaseline
on coiled springs stops squeaks.

22. Trap Work on grand pianos. The only dif-
ference is in the fact that the grand trap-work is
placed in a separate lyre. Sometimes the pedal
foot sticks in the lyre, or there is lost motion
due to worn bushings. The trap levers are
usually found under the key bed and in modern
instruments a screw adjustment on the lifting rods
permits the taking up of lost motion. Other diffi-
culties can be remedied the same as for the up-
right.

256 Modern Piano Tuning.

23. Varnish.

Blue look on case.

Bruises.

Light scratches.

Deep scratches.
Renovating old case.

Polishing varnished case.

Oiling off case.

Due to moisture and dust combined.
Avoid polishes. Simply wash off
case with soap and water and dry
with chamois leather.

Fill in with melted sealing wax, if
deep, then cover with film of melted
shellac, which sand paper down,
and touch up with French varnish.
To polish same, rub with powdered
pumice stone and pad, using water
to moisten, finish with rotten stone
and pad and then with hand mois-
tened with rotten stone and water.
Oil off as below ("Oiling off case").

Rub down with powdered piunice
stone and finish as above. Touch up
with French varnish if necessary.

Fill with shellac and proceed as above.

Scrape off old varnish, then smooth
case with sandpaper then with pum-
ice stone rough. When surface is
clean, re-varnish two coats rubbing
varnish, two days apart, rub down
rough with pumice stone and wa-
ter, flow over with flowing varnish
and then polish, as below.

After flowing coat has dried (5 days)
rub down with pumice stone pow-
der, water and felt pad till all
parts are flat. Then run out
scratches with rotten-stone, water
and pad. Finish with hand till
brightened up. Oil off as below.

Parts being cleaned of powder, etc.,
rub lightly with cheese-cloth on
which has been poured some lemon
oil. When this has been done well,
wring out another cheese-cloth in
alcohol and Avipe off lemon oil. Al-
coliol must be almost dried off be-
fore using cloth.

Repair of the Piano. 257

Checking of varnish. This occurs in all pianos after ex-

posure to domestic conditions. Re-
polishing with pumice-stone and
thence as directed above will often
remedy. But varnish always checks.

24. Ivory polishing and repairing. Ivory keys
get yellow. They may be scraped down white
again with ivory scraper or by fastening down en-
tire keyboard in front after removing sharps and
then rubbing back and forth with wooden block
covered with No. 1^ sandpaper.

To polish, rub ivory with whiting and alcohol.

Touch up sharps with French varnish.

To replace badly worn or loose ivories, take new
strip of ivory, and after making some deep
scratches in wooden top of key to assist glue in
holding, spread over wood some glue whitened by
mixing a little whiting in the glue pot. Put ivory
on and fasten with ivory clamp or by wrapping
tightly with string. But clamp is best. Never
try to use liquid glue. There is an ivory cement
on the market.

25. General remarks on the square piano. Al-
though very few square pianos remain in use, the
tuner sometimes has to work on these old instru-
ments yet. The principal defects may be sum-
marized as follows :

258

Modern Piano Tuning.

Defects of sound-board
and bridges.

Defects of case.

Defects of action.
Hammers loose.

Hammers don't strike

squarely.
Hammers twisted.
Hammers rattle.

Hammers worn.

Jacks sluggish.

Excessive lost motion in
action.

Keys rattle.
Dampers rattle.

Dampers stick.

Dampers don't damp.

Sound-board sags in middle some-
times enough to cause hammer rail
to touch it.

Pins in bridges loosen.

Bridges split.

Sound-board splits.

Wrest-plank sometimes sinks so that
it is necessary to pare off some of
the under surface to enable ham-
mer rail to have free space.

Key bed often sinks in middle and
lets do\vn touch of keyboard. Rem-
edy is to build up under key frame.

Tighten split flange, or if flange is
fixed put in larger pin. But see
that hammer moves freely.

Re-space hammer butts.

Bend stems over with alcohol lamp.

Glue loose somewhere. Investigate
and re-glue.

Get new hammers by removing old
ones and sending them in as sam-
ples. Re-capping with leather is
usually very poor policy.

Springs are usually weakened. Re-
place or strengthen.

Screw up jack rockers but leave
enough play to ensure jack getting
back into place under hammer.

See directions for uprights.

Bushings of lifter wires are loose or
worn.

Bushings swelled. Heat lifter wire
and push in and out of bushing till
same is expanded.

Probably damper levers don't co-act
with lifter wires. Re-space.

Other defects can be understood and remedied
by study of previous instructions on upright and
grand pianos.

Repair of the Piano. 259

26. The Old ''English" Square Action. The
old English square action is still occasionally met
with. In this the hammer is supported by an
under-hammer which is raised by the key and the
regulation for the escapement of the jack is on the
key. All parts are usually very small and deli-
cate and instead of pinned centers there are often
hinges of parchment or vellum. Great care is
necessary in handling these old actions, which are
usually much sunk and out of line, but the tuner
will find that individually to study each case is the
only sound advice that can be given.

27. Tools. The importance of good tools can-
not be overestimated. There is no greater mis-
take than to suppose that one can do good work
with bad tools. Many special tools are manu-
factured for the use of piano makers and tuners,
and all of them are useful. Eegulating, especially,
calls for many tools of special design, such as
regulating screw drivers, spoon benders, key
spacers, key pliers, wire benders and others of the
same sort. Special conveniences are also to be
found such as pocket glue pots, center pin car-
riers, wire carriers and similar articles. The
tuner should take pride in having the best possible
tools and in carrying them most conveniently and

260 Modern Piano Tuning.

accessibly. Some of tlie tool kits put up by vari-
ous manufacturers, containing complete sets of
tools for all kinds of outside work on pianos and
player-pianos, are extremely attractive and prac-
tical. I know ; for I have used them.

My own experience proves amply the value of
some advice which was given me when I started
out as a tuner: ''Get the best tools, learn to use
them skilfully and keep them in perfect condi-
tion. This alone may not make you successful,
but without this respect for, and care of, your
tools you will never get anywhere. ' '

Nor can one atford to neglect the matter of ap-
pearance. The tuner does much of his work in the
customer's house. He is largely judged by the
appearance of his clothes, by his manner, and like-
wise by the workmanlike or unworkmanlike ap-
pearance of his tools. A neat case of bright, clean,
fine-looking tools is an advertisement: it is also
an aid to efficiency.

Chapter XI.

ELEMENTARY PNEUMATICS.

It is not my intention in the following chapters
of this book to write an exhaustive treatise on
pneumatics. Elsewhere I have subjected the piano
player mechanism in its present condition to treat-
ment of a technical sort at some length and to this
other volume the reader is invited for a more com-
plete survey of the facts surrounding the con-
struction and operating principles of these mech-
anisms. In the present chapter, I have indeed en-
deavored to set forth simply and clearly the req-
uisite facts ; but in a more condensed fashion. To
treat the subject-matter again in all completeness
would be to write another volume beginning at this
page; but this is unnecessary, for the reasons
stated. At the same time, I feel it proper to say
that the reader who wishes to be thoroughly ac-
quainted with the player mechanism, and is not
satisfied merely to know that which every tuner

261

262 Modern Piano Tuning.

must anyhow know to-day about players, should
study the subject systematically.^

Need of Instruction. It is no secret that the
arrival and rapid progress of the player-piano
have been most seriously disturbing to those mem-
bers of the tuning profession whose views are
already formed and their methods more or less
settled; in short, to the older and more conserva-
tive tuners. It is safe to say that as late as the
year 1896 very few tuners had ever given serious
thought to the possibility of a mechanism for piano
playing being developed at all; much less to the
possibility of its becoming immensely important
to the trade and a knowledge of it in some shape
essential to success as a tuner. That this should
ever happen would have been thought absurd;
that it should happen within fifteen years would
have been thought ludicrously impossible. Yet
the impossible has become the possible, the ''could-
not-be" has become the Is. The player-piano is
with us; most of us have been caught quite un-
prepared for it.

Scope of these chapters. In the circumstances,
seeing that already nearly one-half of the pianos

1 The book referred to is "The Player Piano Up-to-Date," pub-
lislied by Edward Lyman Bill, Inc., N. Y., 1914.

Elementary Pneumatics. 263

made in the United States are player-pianos and
that the ordinary upright piano without player
seems positively to be doomed, it is plain that one
could not very well avoid writing some chapters
on the player mechanism in a book like this. On
the one hand, then, I have attempted to make sure
that the information given here shall be always
clear, accurate and intelligible ; whilst on the other
hand I have not failed to remember that the tuner
whose interest in the player is confined to attain-
ing such acquaintance with it as will enable him to
make necessary small adjustments and trace the
cause of apparent defects in its performance, will
neither require nor desire a lengthy treatise. To
be accurate and intelligible whilst being also very
brief is not easy ; but I hope that I have succeeded
measurably well in carrying out this requirement.
In this and the two following chapters, then,
I undertake to set forth briefly (1) the funda-
mental principles of pneumatic player mechanism
(2) a general description of the modern player-
piano in its pneumatic aspect and (3) such instruc-
tions as experience shows to be most useful in the
adjustment and repair of defects. The treatment
is such that the reader will have no difficulty in
following everything set down here.

264 Modern Piano Tuning.

The Mechanism. The player mechanism,
whether it be built right into the piano or placed
in a cabinet detached therefrom, is self-contained
and entirely independent of the piano. Usually
to-day it is interiorly built, fitting into waste space
within the case of the upright piano. It is also
now fitted into grand pianos, but in its principal
embodiment remains an addition to the ordinary
upright, built within the case, but independent of
and not interfering with the regular action, scale
or sound-board. The player mechanism can be
withdrawn from the piano case very readily and is
in all respects separate from the musical instru-
ment itself.

The function of the player mechanism is to
render musical compositions by playing upon the
piano action, either through the keys or directly
upon the abstracts or wippens thereof.

The player mechanism runs on power furnished
by bellows blown by the performer.

Various means for expression are provided, con-
trolled either automatically or at the will of the
performer, the objects of which are to permit, as
required, variation of speed, use of damper
lift, loud and soft stroke of hammers, and
division of melody from accompaniment parts.

Elementary Pneumatics. 265

All these requisites are made possible by the use
of simple auxiliary devices.

The selection of notes for the performance of a
composition is undertaken by the aid of a web of
perforated paper, spooled on a core and called
a "music-roll.'*

Source of Power, The power for operating the
player mechanism is furnished by bellows oper-
ated by the feet of the performer through
treadles. The operation of the bellows system is
not at all hard to understand. In fact, the entire
player mechanism works on a system so generally
simple that, once its principle is grasped, the
reader can reason out immediately the method of
operation and the function of any part.

Pressure and Weight of Air. The air of the
atmosphere in which we move and which we
breathe is invisible and virtually intangible. Yet
it is just as much to be reckoned with as so much
iron or wood. Its density is less than that of the
other materials mentioned, but is measurable
nevertheless. Scientific observation has proved
that air, like all forms of what is called matter, has
weight. A column of air one inch square and the
height of the atmosphere has a weight of very
nearly 14.75 pounds or 236 ounces ; so that we may

266 Modern Piano Tuning.

say that the air of the atmosphere exerts a pres-
sure at its bottom (the surface of the earth), of
about 14.75 pounds per square inch.

Expansion. Air is a gas and all matter in a
gaseous state has the property of expanding con-
tinuously to fill any space in which it may find
itself. This expansive property together with
the weight of air is the foundation of the operation
of all pneumatic machines.

The air normally fills at normal pressure all
closed spaces capable of containing air. It is
everywhere and always present at normal pres-
sure, unnoticed and unconsidered, until by some
artificial means it is either rarefied or condensed.
Then work can be done by means of it. If a closed
bag, which is normally filled with air according
to the natural facts of the case, be shut off and
closed so that no more air can get into it from the
outside, and if then the bag be enlarged, without
any more air being allowed to flow into it, the
contained air will have to expand to fill up the
enlarged space. In so expanding, the air is acted
on like the rubber in a rubber band which is
stretched. It becomes thinned out, so that any
cubic inch of it now weighs less than a cubic inch of
it weighed before it expanded. Hence the pres-

Figure 21.

Essential parts of player mechanism, pneumatic open; (not

to scale)
267

"'^^v-'-" ' • ."n

^^fe^

Pedals

Figure 22.

Essential parts of player mechanism, pneumatic closed; (not

to scale)
268

Elementary Pneumatics. 269

sure exerted by any quantity of it is less after ex-
pansion than before. Hence, again, the atmos-
phere outside, which has retained its normal pres-
sure of 14.75 pounds to the square inch, is able to
exert an effective pressure on the outside walls
of the bag, because the inside pressure is reduced
owing to the expansion of the bag; and hence the
balance between the outside and inside air is dis-
turbed.

Disturbance of Balance. The player mechan-
ism operates entirely through this disturbance of
balance as between the atmosphere and bodies of
air contained within enclosed spaces.

Look at the illustrations on pages 267 and 268,
which show the various parts of a player mechan-
ism drawn out in the simplest possible way to show
the operation of each part, but not drawn in pro-
portion or according to any particular existing
player. In fact the object of the drawings is to
show only the operation of the principle.

Simplest case of pneumatic mechanism. At
the bottom of the illustrations will be observed
the bellows with two ''exhausters," operated by
the foot pedals, and one ''equalizer." One of
these exhausters is open and the other closed.
But let us suppose that the player is in a state of

270 Modern Piano Tuning.

rest with, therefore, both foot pedals untouched
and both exhausters closed. The compression
springs behind the exhausters hold them closed
normally. Well, now, the exhausters being norm-
ally closed, the reader will observe that (1) the
outside air can find its way into the ''pneumatic"
through the channels and the top of the valve; (2)
the long channel from tracker bar, over which the
perforated paper moves to the valve pouch, will
also contain any air that may have flowed into it
when a perforation in the paper was registered
with the tracker bar hole ; and (3) through the lit-
tle ''vent," which is just a pin hole in a cap, the at-
mosphere flowing in from the tracker bar will also
fill the reduced pressure chamber and therefore
the entire bellows system, which is in connection
with it. This is the normal or at rest condition.

Operation of Exhausters. If now, the foot is
placed on a pedal and one exhauster pushed open,
see what happens. Assuming that the tracker
bar channel is sealed by the paper for the moment,
as when no note is being played, it will be seen
that the operation of the exhauster simply means
that the whole inside cubical content of the player
is enlarged by the exhauster being opened; the
player, in fact, being made larger inside by just

Elementary Pneumatics. 271

the volume of the exhauster. True to its nature,
therefore, the air in the various parts of the player
expands equally to fill up this space. But the il-
lustrations show that a flap or strip of leather
covers the openings between the inner wall of the
exhauster and the interior of the player. This
strip, however, is pushed aside by the rush of
normal-pressure air into the empty opened ex-
hauster, which continues until the pressure on
either side of the strip is equalized. Therefore
a quantity of air filling the exhauster, but at lower
than normal pressure, is now trapped in the ex-
hauster, since it cannot get back through the door
which it opened once and is now holding closed
(the strip) ; for this door is held shut by a spring
just strong enough to keep it against the pressure
on the inside of the player, and further, is of
course held by the pressure now in the exhauster.
But, the exhauster being now all the way open, and
the pedal all the way down, the heavy compres-
sion-spring outside tends to close the exhauster
again. Besides, the foot-pressure is now natur-
ally released for the return of the pedal. There-
fore the exhauster begins to close and in closing
squeezes the air inside it, which is trapped there
and cannot get back inside the player, until it is

272 Modern Piano Tuning.

enough compressed to force its way out through
the outer strip or flap into the atmosphere, being
forced out by the closing of the exhauster. Once
squeezed out, the exhauster is shut, and anyhow
no more air can get back in through the strip or
flap which presses on the outside of the exhauster.
Therefore we see that one opening and closing
of the exhauster has withdrawn a definite quant-
ity of air from the interior of the player and has
expelled it into the atmosphere. Therefore a
** partial vacuum," as it is called, is set up inside
the player; or, in other words, the pressure of
all the air inside the player has been lowered.

Valve. This being the case, the atmospheric
pressure on top of the valve holds it down firmly
on its seat and shuts off the reduced pressure
chamber from the outer air, whilst conversely the
pneumatic is open to that air and therefore re-
mains at rest.

Reduced-pressure Chamber. Thus the situa-
tion when the pedals are being operated is as
follows: Pressure of air is being constantly re-
duced, inside the player, in the reduced-pressure
chamber, in the tracker bar channel (though on
account of the smallness of the vent, to a smaller
degree), in the trunk channel between bellows and

Elementary Pneumatics. 273

pneumatic action and in the equalizer. Now sup-
pose that a hole in the paper registers with the
tracker bar hole :

Operation of Valve. Immediately, the atmos-
phere, which has of course, been pressing against
the paper, finds its way down against the reduced-
pressure air, through the tracker channel and un-
der the pouch, losing a little by the way through
the vent. The pouch being larger than the top of
the valve button, rises against the pressure on the
button, and lifts the valve spindle with its buttons.
At once, as may be seen, outside air connection
with the pneumatic is shut off, whilst connection
is simultaneously made between the pneumatic
and the reduced pressure chamber. Hence the
heavy normal air in the pneumatic ''falls" by its
own weight into the reduced pressure chamber, re-
ducing the pressure in the pneumatic. The atmos-
phere therefore presses against the moving wall
of the pneumatic, closing the same and putting the
piano action into operation.

When the perforation passes over and the paper
again seals the tracker bar hole and channel, the
normal air under the pouch and in the channel no
longer is re-inforced by supplies from the outside
and in consequence (since the bellows are oper-

274 Mod&rn Piano Tuning.

ated continuously and the reduced pressure cham-
ber always therefore is in a state of partial
vacuum, being never in contact with the open air
except at times through the very small vent), this
normal air in the channel '* falls" into the re-
duced pressure chamber as quickly as it can ''fall"
in through the vent (air being elastic in all direc-
tions, can ''fall," as I call it, up as well as down).
Therefore, partial vacuum again exists in the chan-
nel and under the pouch, so that the valve-stem
is no longer held up with its buttons but again
sinks down and is held down by the atmospheric
pressure on its top button. Therefore again the
pneumatic is shut off from the reduced pressure
chamber and placed in contact with the atmos-
phere, so that it fills with air at normal pressure,
and forthwith opens. This operation may be re-
peated over and over again, quite as rapidly as
the piano action can operate, and in fact, even
more rapidly; provided the necessary sequence
of perforations is present on the paper roll.

This is the operation of the player mechanism.
But we have yet to speak of one important ac-
cessory; the equalizer.

Equalizer. The equalizer is a reversed ex-
hauster. Normally it is held open by a spring.

Elementary Pneumatics. 275

It is also, as will be seen, connected pneumatically
with the remainder of the bellows system and with
the upper action of the player. When the exhaust-
ers begin their work, the air in the equalizer ex-
pands along with the rest and part of it moves out-
ward to the air, so that the pressure in the equal-
izer is also reduced. If the pressure is enough
reduced to overcome the expansive power of the
spring (which never exceeds 8 ounces per square
inch of area on the moving wall of the equalizer
and usually is much less, so that a displacement of
about 3 per cent, of the contained air is enough
to enable the atmosphere to balance the spring and
neutralise it), then the equalizer starts to close.
Whilst closing, it does no effective work, but is in
fact a drag on the bellows. When, however, owing
to an increase in the number of tracker bar holes
open, or to slowing up of the pedaling, or increased
speed of the motor, or to any other cause, the
effectiveness of the exhausters is reduced for a
time, the equalizer, forced by its spring, begins
to open; and in opening becomes, of course, an-
other exhauster, automatically displacing air from
the player and holding it till the exhauster can
take care of it and expel it. This is the function
of the equalizer.

276 Modern Piano Tuning.

Of course, the reader is well aware that there
are many variations on the simple system here
described, but all depend on exactly the same prin-
ciples, whether one or another kind of bellows be
used, whether single or double valve system be
adopted, and whether the most elaborate or the
simplest expression devices be provided. In the
next chapter, I discuss the general varieties of
construction amongst the players usually met with.

Motor. The motor system is equally easy to
understand. As will be seen by the illustration
on the next page, the motor consists of small
bellows called ' ' pneumatics, ' ' mounted on a block
which is perforated with one long tube running
through it from the bellows, provided with ports
called ** suction ports" which penetrate to the
outside of the remote surface of the frame. Each
pneumatic is also provided with a port which runs
between its interior and the outer surface of the
same block. A slide valve slides over the pair
of ports belonging to each pneumatic and is con-
nected with a crank shaft by means of a connect-
ing rod, the pneumatic itself being also connected
to the crank shaft.

Operation of Motor. Now, when the bellows are
operating below and the suction port is in pneu-

rmtumajtic op

Cotnnec\irt<i t\<

action Port" t6Bellov/5

— S/ide VaWe.

Open A\r Port'

ransmiS^Jon,

Figure 23.

Sectional view of pneumatic motor, showing pneumatics, ports,
slide valves, and connections.

277

278 Modern Piano Tuning.

matic connection therewith by means of the tempo
lever which opens a gate situated in a suitable
gate-box, the air pressure in the suction tube is re-
duced. When, therefore a slide valve is in such
a position that it covers both the suction port and
the outer air port belonging to any pneumatic (see
the illustration), the air in the pneumatic flows
outwards into the suction port and thence into
the channel and so to the bellows. This causes
the outside air to press against the moving wall
of the pneumatic and begin to close it. This clos-
ing moves the connecting rod and turns the crank
shaft, which in turn brings the slide valve along
till the suction port is closed and the outer air
port exposed to the atmosphere, when the pneu-
matic again fills and opens, thus continuing the ro-
tary motion of the shaft and completing it. When
a number of pneumatics, usually four or five, are
arranged around a crank-shaft at suitable angles,
a continuous rotary motion is given to the shaft
and the motor develops enough power to turn the
take-up-spool around which the paper roll winds.
Motor Governor. The operation of the motor
governor is equally easy to understand. As will
be seen by the illustration on next page, air which
travels from the motor passes into a sort of small

\\\\v\vv\v

SvVWVWWWV^

279

280 Modern Piano Tuning.

equalizer, held open by a spring. In passing this,
it goes through an opening which may be covered
by a valve block, the movement of which depends
upon the position of the moving wall of the aux-
iliary equalizer. The movement of this wall de-
pends upon the power of its expansion spring.
If this spring, for instance, is at such tension that
it pulls back on the wall with a pull equal (say), to
3 ounces per square inch of the wall's surface,
then the equalizer will close down as soon as the
pressure inside is reduced enough to give the out-
side atmosphere more than 3 ounces effective pres-
sure per square inch. In so closing it tends to shut
off the travel of air through itself from motor to
bellows and thus governs the motor so that no
matter how hard or how gently one pumps, that is
to say no matter how much or how little partial
vacuum there is, the governor acts accordingly,
closing or opening as required but always main-
taining such an opening that increased velocity of
air travel shall be balanced by smaller area of
opening, or decreased speed by larger area, main-
taining always the same pull on the motor and
keeping its speed steady irrespective of the state
of the pumping on the pedals.

Tempo-Box. To change speed, however, or to

Elementary Pneumatics. 281

shut off entirely, the governor includes a tempo-box
containing (see illustration), two valves operated
by slides over them. When the re-roll slide is
closed, and the tempo closed also, no air can pass
from motor further than to these slides, and so
the motor stops. When the tempo slide is opened,
air can pass through, and according to the area of
the opening, as determined by position of the
tempo lever and hence of the tempo valve slide,
the motor runs slower or faster. The more air
is displaced in a given time, the faster it runs;
and this is governed by the size of the opening.
Steadiness is governed by the motor governor and
speed by the tempo valve.

The re-roll valve is used to run the motor very
fast when re-rolling the paper at the conclusion
of the piece. In most players it is independent of
the governing pneumatic, though the illustration
here, for the sake of simplicity, does not show such
an arrangement.

Many other accessory devices are used in vari-
ous players, but these I reserve for treatment in
the next chapter, where I shall speak of the prin-
cipal existing types of players and the peculiari-
ties of each. In the same chapter also I shall
touch on valve-systems, accessories, individual

282 Modern Piano Tuning.

peculiarities and so on, in just enough detail to
enable the reader to recognize these when he meets
them; and to understand their operation and du-
ties.

Physical Facts. In conclusion, I append the fol-
lowing summary of physical facts, which should
be learned by heart and carried in the memory :

1. Air, like all matter in any state, possesses
weight; that is, air is affected by the universal
law of gravitation.

2. Air, therefore, exerts pressure at the surface
of the earth.

3. This pressure is about 14.75 pounds per
square inch at sea level, but being equal and uni-
form in all directions is normally not felt.

4. The normal pressure of the air cannot be^
used unless a body of air in which the pressure
has been artificially reduced is placed in opposi-
tion to it. Then it can be used.

5. This principle of "disturbance of balance" is
the foundation of the entire player system.

6. The player uses very low effective pressure.
Whereas a perfect vacuum would mean that the
outside air could exert its entire pressure of 14.75
pounds to the square inch on the moving parts, it
is impossible to obtain working pressure on the

Elementary Pneumatics. 283

moving parts higher than from 11/2 to 2 pounds per
square inch. In other words, the degree of vacuum
obtained inside the player does not exceed at the
most 15 per cent, and is usually less than 10 per
cent.

7. All air expands immediately when its con-
tainer is enlarged or when part of it is with-
drawn from its container without more coming in.
This expansion reduces pressure, in proportion
to its extent.

8. The player bellows operate by enlarging the
containing space, causing the contained air to ex-
pand, then by means of suitable flap-valves ex-
pelling the displaced air on the closure of the bel-
lows, and thus producing a state of reduced pres-
sure inside the player; so that the outer air can
operate against the moving parts thereof by pres-
sure on their outer surfaces.

The above statement of principles applies per-
fectly to every possible arrangement of devices,
parts or accessories found in any player mechan-
ism made.

Chapter XII.

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF PLAYER MECHANISMS.

Piano-playing mechanisms have been developed
after two general types. One of these is the de-
tached or cabinet player, consisting of a separate
mechanism enclosed in a case and mounted on
castors so that it may be moved about readily. It
is secured in front of the piano, with its fingers
resting over the piano keys ; and when the piano
is to be used for manual playing, it may be moved
away. This type, self-contained and involving no
modification of the piano, was the first to come on
the market, and the earliest specimens date from
the year 1897. Some five years after their first
appearance, their popularity was menaced by
the ** player-piano," as it came to be called, which
contains both elements in the one case. From that
time, the prestige of the cabinet player declined,
until to-day one seldom meets it.

The other type is of course the *' player-piano "
of to-day, consisting of a player mechanism built

284

Co7istruction of Player Mechanisms. 285

into the waste space inside the outer casing of a
piano and combining in the one structure both the
ordinary piano and the playing mechanism, in
such a way that neither interferes with the other
and the piano can be played in the ordinary way
if desired. I propose to give some general ac-
count of both types, although the cabinet player
needs only brief mention.

The Modern Player Piano. The modern player
piano consists of an ordinary piano, of which the
case is usually somewhat widened, containing in
the space between the action and the top and
bottom panels, a playing mechanism for operating
each of the eighty-eight sections of the piano ac-
tion. This mechanism is commonly divided into
two grand divisions; known respectively as the
Bottom Action and the Top Action. These I shall
describe in turn.

Bottom Action. The Bottom Action is that part
of the mechanism placed beneath the key-bed of
the piano, and is commonly one self-contained
piece of machinery. Sometimes a few of its ac-
cessory devices are placed away from it and con-
nected with it by tubes. The Bottom action itself
comprises principally the exhaust bellows, the
pedal action attached to them, and the equalizer

286 Modern Piano Tuning.

system. This is known as the '* bellows-system, "
and to it are commonly attached various sub-
sidiary devices, such as the motor governor, the
expression governor, the action-cut-off valve, and
the pneumatic sustaining-pedal action. The bot-
tom action is of course connected with the top ac-
tion (comprising the pneumatic stack and spool
box with motor), by means of two main air tubes,
one at the left side connecting with the pneumatic
stack and one at the right with the motor.

Bellows. The modem bellows system is a
highly sensitive organism, comprising two exhaust
units connected to foot-treadles, and one or two
equalizers. The double equalizer system is the
more common of late. The two exhausters are
each kept closed with a spring of about 7 pounds
pressure, whilst the equalizers (if there are two),
are spring-expanded (kept open) by springs re-
spectively of 14 and 28 pounds. The latter, or
high tension, springs are often re-inforced further
by means of an extra wood-spring external to
the equalizer and designed to come into action only
when the equalizer is half closed. The idea of
having two equalizers is simply to ensure that
the bellows system shall not '*go dead" on very
hard pumping ; which means that the two equaliz-

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 287

ers shall not both close up and remain closed until
the tension has been relieved by momentary stop-
page of pumping. With a good mechanism, well-
made, and with heavy pumping, this might happen
if the spring pressure on an ordinary equalizer
were no more than 14 pounds total, for this would
not be much more than 2 ounces per square inch on
the wall of the equalizer. If the equalizer did re-
main closed it would simply be out of action, for
it is plain ^ that it does no work till it begins to
open after being closed. Hence the double spring-
pressure on the high tension equalizer.

Two well known types of mechanism (the Auto-
pneumatic Action Co.'s *' Auto-De-Luxe" and the
Standard Pneumatic Action Co.'s ** Standard"),
are provided with a special device in the equalizer
known as the ''crash bellows" (though just why
this name, I do not know) . This is simply a small
bellows placed inside the equalizer over the con-
necting passage which runs outward to the main
channel and to the exhauster, in such a way that
a sudden raising of the tension level, due to hard
pumping, will close do^vn the small bellows over
the opening and for the moment cut off the equal-
izer, thus giving the bellows that much less air-

iCf. Chapter XI.

288 Modern Piano Tuning.

space to exhaust and therefore increasing its rela-
tive power. As soon as the effect of the sudden
extra pumping work has evaporated, the crash
bellows again open and the equalizer is once more
thrown into operation.

Motor Governor. The bellows system includes
always, whether immediately placed on itself, or
at one side of and pneumatically connected with
it, what is called a "motor governor." This de-
vice has been essentially described in the previous
chapter and it is therefore now only necessary to
remark that it is commonly fitted with a spring,
adjustable for tension, and with some sort of ad-
justing screw for limiting the closing of its bel-
lows. The speed of the motor is increased by in-
creasing the tension of the spring. That is to say,
the motor, irrespective of the tempo-valve, may be
caused to move at a speed greater on any tempo
valve position than originally it is adjusted to
give on that position ; and incidentally on all other
positions. This general raising of the speed level
on all positions proportionately may be accom-
plished by stiffening the spring. This simply
means that the stiffer spring imposes greater re-
sistance to the closing of the motor governor bel-

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 289

lows,^ so that, for any given rate of pumping, the
cut-off valve in the governor closes less ; but this
again means, of course, that proportionately more
effort is required to pass the displaced air through
the larger opening. Thus the effect of stiffening
the spring is indeed to increase the speed, but only
by giving the opportunity to the performer to get
that higher speed by harder work on the treadles,
although the fact that the work is harder is usually
not perceived.

In just the same way the tension may be re-
leased somewhat, with consequent quicker closing
of the governor, quicker cut-off and lower general
speed level.

Adjusting screw. An adjusting screw is found
on all motor governors, or on nearly all. Its ob-
ject is to control the proportionate closing of the
bellows. In some types this screw simply abuts
on a block inside the governor so that, the further
it is turned in, the less the governor can close. In
other kinds the screw bears against one end of a
rocking lever of which the other end controls the
cut-off valve, so that the further the screw is
turned in the more the cut-off valve is closed up.

iCf. Chapter XI.

290 Modern Piano Tuning.

To determine the particular system used in any-
given case, one must know the player, or else must
experiment with it to discover which method is
used. The Auto-pneumatic and Standard players
use the first system and the Gulbransen, the Cable
Inner-Player and others use the second.

The point is that if the motor is unsteady on
changes of pumping, the screw adjustment may
be used to make correction of the fault. Such un-
steadiness shows that the governor closes too much
or too little, as the case may be. If the motor
drags on light pumping, so that its speed falls,
that shows that the governor closes too much and
either its spring is too light or the adjusting
screw must be turned to limit its closing. If the
motor races on hard pumping, that shows that the
governor closes not enough, or else that the spring
is too stiff. If the general speed is right, then the
fault is in the adjustment of the governor ; which
is corrected as described.

Expression Governors. Some players (^olian,
Auto-pneumatic, some types; Price & Teeple, A.
B. Chase, Cable, Angelus, etc.), are fitted with an
additional governor on the bellows-system known
as the Expression Governor. The principle of
its operation is of course identical with that of

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 291

the motor governor, but the object of its existence
is different. The motor governor exists to main-
tain a steady level of power, but the object of
the expression governor is to enable quick
changes to be made from a fixed governed low
level to the ungoverned (high) level at which the
exhausters of the bellows system are working at
any moment. All sorts of detail differences are
possible, and existing, with regard to the construc-
tion of such devices ; but the type illustrated here
(based on the system used in the Auto-pneumatic
mechanism), will serve the purpose of descrip-
tion.

It will be observed that we have a governing
bellows, or auxiliary equalizer, held open by an
expansion spring. This bellows stands in the
channel from pneumatic action to bellows so that
air displaced from the action must flow through
it on the way to the bellows. A small hinged
valve block stands over the channel running to
the bellows, and is pressed downwards by a spring
on to the stop-block on the moving wall of the
auxiliary equalizer or governor bellows. It is
plain that unless (as shown in the illustration),
the valve block were held up forcibly by the button
on the threaded wire, it would drop down over its

292

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 293

orifice in proportion as tlie governor might close
under pumping. But as normally arranged, the
wire is placed to hold the block up and away from
the stop block of the governor, and so even if the
governor does close, it does not cut off the air
passage. If, however, the accent lever on the key-
slip of the player is thrown over, the wire drops
and allows the accent valve block to fall on the
stop-block and thus permits the governor to act,
for now the cut-off comes into action and the air
passage is reduced in area so that the available
vacuum is low enough to give only light power
and soft playing. When, conversely, the accent
lever is allowed to throw back to its normal posi-
tion, the wire again pushes up the valve-block and
the governor is again thrown out of action. It is
evident that by alternating from low to high pres-
sure, a series of instantaneous changes from soft
to loud can be had, thus giving accentuation.
This device is sometimes called the ''soft expres-
sion governor," although the name is inadequate
and misleading. ''Expression governor" is cor-
rect.

Various other systems and types are used, but
the above described method shows the principle
thoroughly. It is simply a case of the governor

294 Modern Piano Tuning.

being normally cut out of action, and then of hav-
ing it thrown into action, to soften the playing
when required.

The same effects could be had by a pneumati-
cally operated pouch valve, with a button instead
of a lever. Likewise, the accenting effect can be
had by perforations in the roll operating on a
pouch-valve as aforesaid.

Sustaining Pedal Pneumatic. In many play-
ers the sustaining pedal is operated by a direct
mechanical lever system without the use of any
pneumatic device. But of late years there has
arisen a desire for automatic control of the sus-
taining pedal effects, through perforations in the
music roll, and at the same time many retailers
have expressed a preference for a pneumatically
operated button instead of a direct lever. In this
case a large pneumatic equipped with a valve
system is placed near the bottom of the piano,
adjacent to the damper lift-rod and connected
with it so that the rod can be raised when the
pneumatic collapses. This pneumatic system is
connected to the main bellows system by means
of a tube, and so, when the player is working, the
vacuum chamber of the system is in a state of

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 295

partial vacuum. Hence when air is admitted un-
der tlie valve pouch or pouches by depression
of a button or by opening of a perforation in the
tracker-bar, the pneumatic collapses and the sus-
taining pedal action operates, lifting the damper
from the strings.

Soft-Pedal Pneumatics. Another very com-
mon expression device is a pair of pneumatic sys-
tems, connected with the bellows system and
placed on each side thereof, or above the line of
hammers at bass and treble ends of the piano,
whereby the hammer line of the piano, artificially
divided by a split auxiliary rail, may be raised
toward the strings of the piano, all together, or
one half at a time. The method of operation is
just the same as described for the sustaining pedal
action, except that the pneumatics can be made
smaller, since the weight to be overcome by each
is not great. A pair of buttons on the key- slip
control the admission of air under the valve sys-
tems of the pneumatics. When half the rail is
lifted whilst the other half remains in normal posi-
tion, the blow of the hammers which rest against
the former, is shortened, with resultant softening
of the sound produced by them. Thus, in a some-

296 Modern Piano Tuning.

what rough way, the accompaniment part of a
composition may be subdued as against the mel-
ody voices.

Sometimes a pair of direct acting finger levers
on the key-slip are used to lift the split hammer-
rail without resort to pneumatic devices.

What is known as the ''floating" hammer-rail
is also sometimes used. This is simply an ar-
rangement whereby the hammer rail and the ordi-
nary piano soft pedal action are attached to the
moving wall of the equalizer of the bellows sys-
tem so that as the equalizer sways back and forth
the hammer rail is moved forward towards, or
back from, the strings. On hard pumping, when
the equalizer closes up, the hammers recede from
the strings ; and on soft pumping, when the equal-
izer opens again, they approach the strings, thus
modifying the length of the hammer blow in ac-
cordance with the pumping, and imparting a more
flexible quality to the dynamic control of the
player.

Action Cut-off. In all player-pianos the action
is cut off from playing whilst the motor is re-
winding the paper, by a door thrown across the
main passage from action to bellows. When an
expression governor is used, this cut-off is usually

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 297

incorporated in the same box with the rest of the
governor, and when two are used two such cut-
offs are necessary, one for the bass and the other
for the treble side of the pneumatically divided ac-
tion. This door is usually operated by the direct
mechanical action of the re-roll lever, which at
the same time shifts the gear on the motor and
opens the re-roll valve in the tempo-box. Some-
times, however, a pneumatic cut-off is used
(Gulbransen, Cable, etc.), which operates by the
.re-roll lever opening an air passage which lets
air down into a partial-vacuum chamber, raising
a pouch and thus cutting off the piano action by
covering the wind- way.

Re-roll. The re-roll operates in the same way,
through a re-roll lever, whereby the gear of the
motor transmission is reversed and simultaneously
a large valve opened in the tempo box, not passing
through the governor, whereby the motor can be
speeded up in re-rolling. Sometimes a pneumatic
gear-shifting device is used (Cable).

Silencer. When a pneumatic action-cut-off is
used, another button may also be placed on the
key-slip letting in air to operate the cut-off valve
without changing the transmission gear of the
motor. Then the motor will run forward without

298 Modern Piano Tuning.

the action playing, as is sometimes required for
passing rapidly over a part of a roll which the
performer does not wish to play. As sometimes
built, the "Silencer" also opens the large re-roll
valve in the tempo box, again without shifting
gears, so that the motor can race ahead. This
is only possible, of course, when the re-roll valve
is controlled by a pouch instead of a direct action
slide-valve.

Bleed-Jioles. All the valve systems described
above as operating the various non-speaking
pneumatics, require of course the usual "bleed-
holes" or "vents" for the purpose of flushing out
the air-tubes running from tracker bar or button.

Top Action. The top-action, so-called, of the
player-piano consists of (1) the pneumatic stack
(2) the motor and (3) the tracker-bar with its in-
cidental accessory devices. Let us take these in
order.

Pneumatic Stack. In the previous chapter I
have described the principles of design in a pneu-
matic action controlled by a single valve. This
description, roughly speaking, holds good for all
players of what is called the "single-valve" type,
which means the type where one valve only is
used between the tracker bar and the speaking

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 299

pneumatic. The so-called '* double-valve " type is
exactly the same, save that between the valve
which directly controls the pneumatic, and the
tracker bar, is another smaller valve called the
''primary" valve. This valve is lifted by the
air which flows down the tracker tube and in lift-
ing exposes an opening of larger size than the
tracker perforation, down which flows air to the
** secondary" valve, which directly controls the
pneumatic. The two valves therefore are inter-
dependent, neither one being effective unless the
other is also effective. It is not true, as may be
seen by examining any double valve action, that
the one valve operates the pneumatic if the other
does not. The main reason for the use of the
second valve is found in the desire to use a pneu-
matic larger than can be effectively exhausted by
the operation of a valve small enough to be read-
ily controlled by the amount of air which can flow
down the tracker tube in any given time.

Only one vent or bleed hole is needed in the
''double" action, as the secondary channels are
flushed by their air flowing back into the primary
chamber and thence out to the bellows.

Assembly. The pneumatic stack is assembled
above the keys, with the pneumatics, in some sort

2.
3.

Pres-

Music Koll.

Take-up Spool.

Tracker Bar.

Tracker-Tube.

Primary Pouch.

Secondary Pouch.

Vent.

Primary Reduced Pressure
Chamber.
7a. Secondary Reduced
sure Chamber.

Primary Valve.
8a. Secondary Valve.
9. Pneumatic Open.

Pneumatic Closed.

Primary-Secondary
nel.

Passage to Bellows System.

13. Piano Key.

14. Piano Action.

Chan-

FlGURE 26.

Sectional view of Double- Valve Action showing pneumatics open

and closed.
300

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 301

of operative relation to the piano action, whether
directly by contact with the wippens of the ac-
tion or indirectly through fingers or rocking levers.
Whether the pneumatics face forwards towards
the front of the piano keyboard or towards the
strings, makes no special difference. The valve
system of the single-valve stack is mounted so
that each pneumatic is placed immediately above
or below its valve, in two, three or more banks.
The secondary valves of the double system are
placed in a chamber behind the pneumatics with
the primary chamber and its valves above. It is
usual to assemble the stack so that pneumatics
can be detached from their positions and valves
taken out, cleaned and regulated. In some play-
ers (Kimball, etc.), a separate channel above the
action is provided to carry the vents, and this
channel then exhausts into the pneumatic stack,
or directly into the bellows system.

Motor and transmission. No special further
description of the motor and transmission, in addi-
tion to what has already been said in the previ-
ous chapter is needed here. In fact, it only re-
mains to recount that four, five and six single-
unit bellows are variously used by makers, some
with a valve slide to each pair and some with a

302 Modern Piano Tuning.

slide to each individual ; whilst again some motors
are made with double units, having two bellows,
one above the other, working on each connecting
rod. Some special types are also known, such as
the cylinder motor of Gulbransen and his later
models with their oscillating and rotary valves.
But in all cases the principle involved is that which
has already been described.

The spring-actuated motor of Melville Clark
must also be remembered, but it needs no special
description here.

The transmission is a simple form of gear set,
whereby the motor may drive either the take-up
spool, for winding forward, or the chucks on which
the roll turns, for re-winding at the close of a
piece.

Spool Box. The Spool Box is a rectangular
open frame in which are placed the tracker bar,
the take up spool and the music roll chucks, in
addition to any tracker bar or roll shifting device
that may be incorporated. Its various parts may
be described as follows :

Tracker bar. The tracker bar is usually of
solid brass pierced with 88 perforations, nine to
the transverse inch, and with any extra perfora-
tions that may be required for the non-speaking

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 303

pneumatic devices. From its rear tlie perfora-
tions branch out into tubes of rubber or metal
which carry from each to its corresponding valve
and pneumatic in the pneumatic stack. Some-
times (Clark, Gulbransen, etc.), the tracker bar
can be shifted by a thumb nut in the spool box, so
that any failure of perforations in the paper roll
to register properly with the tracker-perforations,
can be corrected. In other cases take-up spool
and music roll chucks are moved by a mechanical
device (Cable, etc.).

Extra perforations. Extra perforations used
as follows : a large perforation at the left side for
the sustaining pedal, small perforations in dupli-
cate at either side for automatic accent devices
(see supra, this chapter), and marginal small per-
forations for automatic tracking devices (see in-
fra). In some cases the latter perforations are
superseded by moveable tongues of metal or simi-
lar devices to press against the edge of the paper.
Player-pianos of the electric-motor-driven type
have also additional perforations to operate auto-
matic start-and-stop pneumatics placed on the bel-
lows system and working into tempo and action
box.

Automatic tracking devices. Although there are

304 Modern Piano Tuning.

a dozen different varieties of these, the intention
in each case is the same and the principle similar.
The idea is that if the paper shifts transversely in
the course of its longitudinal travel, its own shift-
ing shall operate devices to bring it back into line.
The well known device used in the Auto-de-Luxe
and allied players works as follows: At either
margin of the tracker is a pair of very small holes
leading to tracker-tubes which run into a valve-
system controlling pneumatics, one to the outer
and one to the inner, pair of holes. These pneu-
matics are connected with a lever system to the left
hand music-roll chuck, so that this chuck is moved
transversely from left to right, accordingly as the
corresponding pneumatic is operated. The music-
roll is always normally held hard against this
moveable chuck by the pressure of the spring in
the other (left-hand) chuck. When the roll
travels as it should, in true register, its edges just
cover each pair of marginal perforations. When,
however, the paper shifts transversely, through
any cause whatsoever, and so is thrown out
of register with the tracker-bar, one pair of
holes is covered, which lets air down the cor-
responding tracker-tubes, operates valves and
the corresponding pneumatic, and causes the

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 305

movable chuck to be moved transversely so as
to push the paper back into register again. The
box on which the valves and pneumatics are
mounted is placed at the left side of the spool box,
the side opposite to that on which the motor
stands.

There are a dozen types of this device, as I have
said, but examination of them will show that they
all operate in essentially the same way.

The ^^ parlor" electric player. The so-called
''home electric" or "parlor electric" player is
not new but a modification of existing player-
pianos devised to take care of a demand that may
or may not be lasting. The additions consists of
an auxiliary exhaust set, usually of three small ex-
hausters mounted on a crank shaft and driven at
relatively high speed by a small electric motor.
This can be used to exhaust the action in place
of the ordinary foot-driven bellows. The ordi-
nary bellows system and treadles are retained, and
no other change is made save an extra pneumatic
governor-box to permit the starting of motor, stop-
page of motor and cut-off of pneumatic stack
when required at the beginning and the end of a
piece respectively. These are controlled by addi-
tional perforations in paper and tracker bar.

306 Modern Pimio Tuning.

65-note players. The 65-note player is a thing
of the past, but of course many were made
and are yet in use. They cannot be said to differ
very much from the more perfected types of which
they are the ancestors, save that the parts are
larger and clumsier and on the whole much less
accessible. In many cases the pneumatic stack is
built below the key-bed so that it is necessary to
withdraw the latter before one can get at the
action at all. Although only 65 notes are oper-
ated, so that there are 23 fewer pneumatics than
we need to-day, old pianos of this type are often
quite astonishingly clumsy and huge.

It is well to note the following points as exhibit-
ing differences from modern player-pianos:

1. The tracker scale is wider, having 6 perfora-
tions to the transverse inch. The roll is therefore
somewhat wider also.

2. The rolls are pinned at the flanges, which
means that a different sort of chuck to hold them
is needed.

3. The action is sometimes placed below the
key-bed and when this is so it is nearly always
necessary to take out the entire bed to get at the
action for repair or regulation.

4. Combined 65- and 88-note tracker bars were

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 307

used for a time after the first appearance of the
88-note player. In all of these it is well to look
out for leaks in the tracker and for all the an-
noyances thereby caused. These combination
players are now no longer made, however, ex-
cept on order.

The Cabinet Player. Although the old cabinet
or outside player is now obsolete, a great many
of them were made, some with reed organs built
into them and others embodying all manner of
freak experiments. The range was either 58 or
65 notes and special music was therefore often
necessary. The following hints may be found
useful as a condensed guide to the construction
of these old instruments :

Belloivs. It will be found usually that the bel-
lows of the oldest cabinet players were developed
much on the order of the reed organ, particularly
in respect of having a large equalizing unit and
large exhausters. These bellows are essentially
slow moving and do not lend themselves to quick
changes of tension level. They are covered with
the kind of rubber cloth used for the reed
organ, and fastened at the bottom of the cabinet
in such a way that to get at them it is necessary
to take out the entire mechanism from the cabinet.

308 Modern Piano Tuning.

In fact, it will be found that usually it is not pos-
sible to get at any parts save the motor and
tracker-bar without taking the whole thing from
its case; in itself often a difficult and irritating
job.

The various parts which go to make up the bel-
lows system, such as governors, gate-boxes and
action-cut-off valves, are usually found buried in-
side the bellows on the older cabinet players, and
can only be reached through them.

Pneumatic Action. The valve system of the
cabinet player is either of the simple single valve
type described in essence in the last chapter, or
of the primary-secondary type as described in the
persent chapter. There is nothing special to be
said about the make-up of such systems in the
special case of the cabinet player, save that the
valve boards are sometimes found glued together
in such a way as to prevent any access to the
pouches.

Motor. The motor is of the usual type, but of-
ten has only three units, which sometimes are
placed at the bottom of the case. The spring-
driven motor is used in the Apollo, Simplex and
Needham cabinet players.

Expression. The expression control of the

Construction of Player Mechanisms. 309

cabinet player varies according to make, but the
most popular arrangement is as follows: one
tempo lever, one re-wind lever, one sustaining
pedal lever giving direct pressure on the pedal
foot of the piano, and one lever working an ex-
pression governor to switch the playing power
from high to low tension at will.

In later models of cabinet player, automatic ac-
centuation devices were introduced equivalent to
those which have been adopted in similar players
of the interior contained type. Such modern
cabinet players, however, may be considered as
virtually equivalent to the present interior
mechanisms, as they contain the same devices and
are built the same way.

These brief remarks will suffice for descrip-
tion of a type which has passed away almost en-
tirely and no longer need engage our serious at-
tention.

Chapter Xlll.

REPAIR OP PLAYER MECHANISM.

Within the meaning of the word ''repair," as
used in this chapter, I understand to be included
all matters pertaining to the regulation and main-
tenance of players in good order during their ef-
fective life, as well as such direct reparations as
are made necessary by actual breakage or destruc-
tion of parts. I do not propose to attempt an
exhaustive listing of all the possible troubles that
may occur, but shall give here some gleanings
from my own experience and from much observa-
tion of others' work, with the intention of provid-
ing a general guide which will enable the learner
to find his own way through the most difficult
problems.

In the first place it ought to be realized that
the number of possible troubles that can occur to
a player-piano is limited. All may be traced to
a few broad causes, and when these are known
and understood, any problem that may arise can

310

Repair of Player Mechanism. 311

be reasoned out. I shall begin by discussing the
possible troubles occurring to players that re-
main structurally and organically perfect, and
shall then say a little about the work of repairing
damaged and broken parts on older machines. In
short, the first part of this chapter shall treat of
maintenance, the second of actual replacements.
Leaks. The fundamental cause of more than
half the ills which affect player-pianos is leakage.
It is of course obvious that in a machine like the
pneumatic player action, operation whereof de-
pends upon the constant maintenance of a reduced
pressure within the mechanism, any leakage of air
inwards from the outside must be prevented at all
costs. Yet it is also plain that this leakage inwards
is inevitable to some extent, for the simple reason
that the outside air presses upon the outer walls
of the mechanism everywhere with a definite pres-
sure directly proportional to the reduction of pres-
sure within. The higher the vacuum within, the
greater the pressure without. Hence it can easily
be seen that there is everywhere a constant tend-
ency towards the leakage of air inwards in all
places where such leakage is conceivably possible.
Thus, for instance, we know that when the button
of the primary valve is thrown up, atmospheric

312 Modern Piano Tuning.

air flows in beneath the button and into the sec-
ondary channel. Now, right operation of the
mechanism depends upon the primary buttons
seating upon their seats so cleanly that there shall
be no leakage of air under them until they are
deliberately raised by the operation of the paper
roll. Any leakage under any of these buttons
means that the corresponding secondary valves
are operated, and then we have what is known as
** ciphering"; which means, pneumatics speaking
when no perforations in the roll call for them to
speak. That is one illustration of the leakage
problem.

It is equally plain that through leakage the
pneumatic sustaining pedal devices operate when
the control button is at rest. Leakage is respon-
sible for the re-roll speed of a motor being main-
tained when driving forward. Leakage is respon-
sible (when a re-roll is pneumatically handled),
for the mechanism playing when re-rolling
Leakage beneath the pouches of a tracking device
may be responsible for constant bad tracking of
rolls. And there are many other possibilities in
the case.

Precautions against leakage. It is therefore
clear that the maintenance of air-tight conditions

Repair of Player Mechanism. 313

is the prime duty of the repairman. To this end
the following general hints will be found useful :

1. Always see that the screws in valve boards
and other important places, such as governor
boxes, etc., are well tightened.

2. Do not drive screws roughly and forcibly,
but always turn them in as far as possible with
the fingers, and then finish with screw-driver. Do
not force too tight. Overdrawn screws are a most
prolific cause of leakage.

3. When it is necessary to take off a cover from
a box or bellows, or valve-chest, be extremely care-
ful to see that the replacement is made exactly as
was the detachment. In other words, mark the
top and bottom of the box when detaching it and
see that it goes back the same way.

4. When detaching a valve seat, see that it is
marked so as to facilitate replacing in exactly the
same position ; and if it was shellaced or glued in
place, re-shellac or re-glue it.

5. See that valves work easily and are not pre-
vented from seating by grit or dirt lodging on
the seats. Sticking or blocked secondary valves
sometimes prevent entirely the formation of a
vacuum in the chest, being wedged in a half way
position and allowing air to be drawn constantly

314 Modern Piano Tuning.

from the outside into the chest through their outer
seats.

6. See that all hose connections are tightly on
their nipples and if such connections have tighten-
ing bands, see that the latter are tightened accord-
ingly.

Motor troubles. The pneumatic motor of the
player mechanism is timed to run as follows :

2 feet per minute of paper to pass when indicator shows 20

3 feet per minute of paper to pass when indicator shows 30

4 feet per minute of paper to pass wlien indicator shows 40

5 feet per minute of paper to pass when indicator sliows 50

6 feet per minute of paper to pass when indicator shows 60

7 feet per minute of paper to pass when indicator sliows 70

and so on upwards to the 130 mark on the tempo
dial, where the indication is for 13 feet of paper
per minute to travel. These speeds are commonly
tested on a test-roll which is marked out in feet and
half-feet so that the time can be taken by the
watch.

Test-roll. A test-roll which allows for the
separate sounding and repetition of each of the 88
pneumatics, as well as for timing motor speed,
is an essential element in the kit of the player-
repairman.

Motor Slow. If the motor runs at speed slower
than indicated above, the spring of the motor gov-

Repair of Player Mechanism. 315

ernor must be strengthened as explained in previ-
ous chapters.

Motor Fast. If the motor runs too fast, spring
must be weakened.

Motor drags. If the motor drags on light pump-
ing (does not run fast enough, loses speed), the
governor closes too much. If the speed has been
regulated through the governor spring, for normal
pumping, the screw which is placed to limit the
closing of the governor or its cut-off must be ad-
justed to keep the governor further open.

Motor races. If the motor races on hard pump-
ing, the governor does not close enough. If speed
is right on normal pumping, then adjust screw so
as to make governor close a little more on hard
pumping.

Motor hitches. If the motor runs irregularly
and in a sort of gasping way, perhaps losing
power rapidly or failing under hard work, as to-
wards the end of a heavy roll, this probably means
leakage under the slide-valves or incorrect ad-
justment of them. In the first place, see if the
slides sit flat on their seats. If they do not, take
them down and have them trued up. Wooden
slides can be sandpapered flat. The seats should
also be sandpapered and then burnished with pow-

316 Modern Piano Tuning.

dered graphite (not grease, tallow or other fatty-
substances, but pure graphite only). In the sec-
ond place, if the motor runs unevenly, disconnect
slides and then carefully place each one in its true
extreme position over the ports in both extreme
positions alternately, marking the seat accord-
ingly. Then adjust the connecting rods so that
slides reach these positions correctly.

Motor races all the time. In this case the re-
roll valve in the tempo box is probably being kept
open. Adjust it accordingly. But if a silencing
valve is used, look to this and see whether there
is anything holding it open on the motor side ; as
for instance a leak, allowing air constantly to
flow under the operating pouch and lift the valve.

Action plays when re-rolling. In this case it
is evident that action-cut-off valve does not close
when the re-roll lever or button is operated. In
cases where a pneumatic device is used it is possi-
ble that leakage under the pouch or between the
operating button and its seat may be responsible.
Otherwise, a broken connecting rod is the most
obvious thing to seek.

Action does not play. Action cut-off valve re-
mains closed. Examine the manner of operation
and apply remedies as suggested above.

Repair of Player Mechanism. 317

No vacuum in action. See if secondary valves
are held off their seats by dirt or verdigris gather-
ing on seats, or by sticking of guide pins; pro-
vided, of course, that bellows system is working
all right.

Pouches too stiff. Sometimes pouches are made
stiff by age or warping of pouch board, so that
they hold valve stems off their seats and prevent
vacuum chest from becoming duly exhausted.
This defect is sometimes observed by player fail-
ing to gain vacuum when pumped. Take off valve
board and rub down pouches with fingers. If this
will not do, regulate valves to give more play be-
tween buttons and pouches.

Player ''Lacks power." Usually this defect is
manifested in a certain lack of "resistance" under
the feet and is often to be remedied simply by
increasing the stiffness of the equalizer springs.
If there are two equalizers it is often well to stif-
fen only the one which is more heavily spring-
expanded. Sometimes an extra wooden spring
outside the equalizer is the indicated remedy.

Repetition Bad. Probably the vents or "bleed-
holes" are clogged and in this case need simply to
be cleaned, when the trouble will disappear. Ad-
justable bleed-holes, as in some players, may have

318 Modern Piano Tuning.

been mal-adjusted by some previous repairer.
Lost motion between pnemnatics and piano action
is also to be considered as a possible contributor
to this defect.

Bepetition good hut power wea1c. Bleed-holes
are probably too large and should be adjusted ac-
cordingly if player has adjustments for this pur-
pose. But this defect is very unlikely to be ob-
served in players with fixed bleed-holes.

Player plays hesitatingly. See if primary valve
stems stick in their sockets or are too tight in
them. This will cause primaries to move slowly
and delay action of player. Similarly, see if sec-
ondary valves move slowly through stickiness of
pins or other similar causes.

Travel of Valves. In almost all cases it may
be safely set down that primary valves need not
and should not rise more than ^4''. Secondary
valves need about Vs' travel in most cases.

Pneumatic ciphers. See above on Leaks. Ci-
phering is due to the valves operating independ-
ently of the paper, so that a pneumatic collapses as
soon as pumping starts. Look for leaks in the
tracker-tube, or dirt setting on valve seats, or leaks
from channel to channel in valve boards or con-
nections.

Repair of Player Mechanism. 319

Pneumatic silent. If a speaking pneumatic
does not collapse when it should, listen for a
hissing sound. This would indicate a torn pneu-
matic. Otherwise see if tracker-tube or channels
are clogged or valves held shut by dirt.

Dampers always off. Sometimes (see above,
*' leaks") air gets in under the sustaining device
control button and keeps sustaining pedal pneu-
matic partly collapsed. Other similar defects
may cause this pneumatic to remain collapsed.

Dampers do not rise on low vacuum. All pneu-
matic sustaining devices have the vice of requir-
ing considerable power to work them. If they
work well on lower power, then this means that
bleed-hole and rise of valve are cut down so much
that, although the pedaling is not affected, the
operation of the pneumatic is slow. Vice-versa,
if the pneumatic closes sharply, it makes a lot
of noise and takes up much power. A happy me-
dium is the only aim possible.

Soft expression. The expression governor can
be regulated to determine what degree of power
shall be available when the soft expression is in
action. The stiffer the spring is made, the louder
will the player play on soft expression; and vice
versa.

320 Modern Piano Tuning.

In players whicli have divided soft expression,
one half of the vacuum chest is affected by each
governor. The action-cut-off valve is then also
divided; one valve being required in each expres-
sion box. This should be remembered in deal-
ing with such players.

Regulation in general. Of course, it would be
possible to go on indefinitely setting forth direc-
tions for remedying possible troubles; but the
foregoing covers the really essential points and
the student should be able by careful study of
the previous chapters to reason out for himself
any futher problems of the same sort. It is
mainly to be remembered that the player mech-
anism is to be considered well regulated when it
plays well. If its playing is satisfactory to the
user and to the tuner who cares for it there is
leally no more to be said. Certain things are
requisite to the proper working of the player
mechanism and these have been set forth above.

Patches and replacements. The actual replace-
ment of parts which have become worn out is not
often necessary but in old cabinet players and
even on the older 65-note player-pianos still in
use one sometimes finds it necessary to re-clothe
bellows units, re-pouch valves and so on.

Repair of Player Mechanism. 321

Stopping Leaks in Boards. When cracks ap-
pear in valve boards it is best to fill them in with
shellac. In fact, any places, where any possi-
bility exists of leaking joints or porous wood, may
always advantageously be treated in this way. If
cracks are really wide, it may be better to fill in
with soft wood glued in place, and then cover with
a thin patch of pneumatic cloth on both sides,
afterwards shellacing over the patch. This will
make a perfect air-tight patch.

Cracked Pneumatics. The cloth sides of pneu-
matics, especially those of the motor, wear out in
time at the hinges. In this case, it is necessary
either to cement a small patch over the cracked
place or — if the crack is wide — perhaps to re-
clothe the pneumatic. Especially is this often
necessary on old motors. The procedure in this
case is as follows : Carefully cut ofiF the old cloth
very close to the edges of the wooden walls, so that
when cut off the entire cloth can be laid out on
a table in one piece forming a pattern for the new
cloth. The narrow edge of the cloth where it was
glued on to the walls cannot always be removed
readily, but in that case simply cut as closely to
the edges as possible. Then lay the old piece
down on a new piece of cloth, allowing enough ex-

322 Modern Piano Tuning.

tra width to take care of the thin edge which is
to be glued on the boards or walls of the pneu-
matic. Take a file and smooth off the edges of
the pneumatic boards or walls, so as to get otf all
the old cloth that will come off. Then get good
hot glue, spread it over the edges of one board and
apply the cloth, smoothing it well down with the
hand and ironing it finally with a small iron rea-
sonably hot. Then do the same on the other wall
of the pneumatic, allowing a little time for the
first to dry. Be careful to see that the dimen-
sions are preserved, especially as to width of open-
ing when the cloth is glued on. For speaking
pneumatics, a mercerized rubber-coated cotton is
often used, gauging (L. J. Mutty Co. figures)
0045" to .0075'^ For motors the same firm manu-
factures a rubber cloth, either double or single
texture, gauging .008'' to .015".

Bellows Repairs. The corners of the exhaust
units sometimes show signs of wear but the tough-
ness of the cloths used and the comparatively slow
movement of the units in operation permit effec-
tual patching without any necessity for entire re-
covering. Patches should be of the same material
as the original cloth and should be glued on with
hot glue if the cloth is a jean or a twill ; and with

Repair of Player Mechanism. 323

rubber cement if tbe old-fashioned rubber bel-
lows cloth is the material.

Bellows flap-valves sometimes become leaky
through porosity of the cloth. They can be cov-
ered with a strip of bellows-twill, or simply re-
placed.

Double texture jeans and heavy twills are used
for covering bellows to-day. The old rubber cloth
is virtually obsolete.

Pouches. To replace broken or cracked
pouches, take off the old leather as carefully as
possible and cut a new piece of the same size.
Scrape glue-surface clean, put on hot glue and
press down with a wooden block cut to fit the
orifice. Kid is often used for pouch-leather on
modern players, but on old ones sheepskin was
sometimes used. The use of this latter should be
avoided as it tends to crumble. In my opinion, a
rubber-coated silk cloth is the best, and such cloth
should gauge (see L. J. Mutty measurements)
from .003 to .004 inch.

Squeaky Springs. Treat coiled springs with
vaseline. If fan springs squeak see where the
rust is in them and clean it out.

Squeaky Slides. Squeaky slide-valves in tempo
boxes and elsewhere should be treated by smooth-

324 Modern Piano Tuning.

ing off their seats and contact surfaces and rub-
bing on powdered graphite from a soft, heavy
lead pencil. Never use grease in any form.

Overdrawn screws. Screws should always be
countersunk and provided with metal washers
when used to secure valve boards and other places
where air-tightness is desired. Do not turn over-
drawn screws, but withdraw them, plug their holes
and re-insert. Overdrawn screws always mean
leaks.

Leaky Tubes. Old rubber tubing is sometimes
found crumbled and leaky. Do not bother about
it, but simply replace it with new lengths. Old
hose connections often leak also and it is better
to replace them. Metal hose pipe connections
should be well screwed down and if necessary
seated on a coat of shellac.

Metal tubing does not often crack or otherwise
suffer leakage troubles, but occasionally a jar or
shock will crack such a tube at a joint. The best
remedy is to cut out the affected part and join
up with a piece of rubber tube; or else use the
soldering iron.

Old Player-Pianos. Player-pianos made in the
G5-note days were usually built with a child-like
confidence in their infallibility; or at least one

Repair of Player Mechanism. 325

would so imagine. Their builders do not seem
to have considered that there would ever be any
special need to take them apart, and in fact may
perhaps have thought that they would be better
untouched ; for certainly to disentangle them from
the piano is always a formidable and often a hope-
less task. The repairman may observe that
many of these old pianos are built with the entire
pneumatic stack, in addition to the bellows-sys-
tem, under the key-bed, while the spool-box re-
mains above. Naturally, it is not easy to get such
a mechanism out of the piano and in many cases
it is necessary to take out the key-bed, which in
fact is usually arranged accordingly. In one case
(old Cecilian 65-note) the key-bed carrying the
pneumatic action, the keys, the piano action and
the spool-box, can be separated from the back of
the piano.

Leakage, slowness of motor, hard pumping and
general debility are to be expected in these player-
pianos, for they were built at a time when the
whole industry was in an experimental state and
when the general level of scientific knowledge,
never high, was even lower than it is now in the
factories. Hence, as can easily be understood, all
kinds of impossible constructions were made the

326 Modern Piano Tuning.

subject of experiment and the repairman is oft-
times called on to use liis skill on specimens of
this sort.

In any case it may be said that the principles
already briefly laid down in this book (and more
completely in my *' Player-Piano Up To Date")
apply to the old as well as to the new, nor has there
been any radical alteration in essential methods.
Principles, of course, are exactly the same to-day
as they were twenty years ago ; refinement in de-
tail has been accomplished but scarcely anything
more.

Cabinet Players' Individualities and Peculiarly
ties. Similar observations apply to the older cab-
inet players, with certain additions. The older
cabinet Angelus and Apollo were made with a 58-
note range. The Angelus music rolled the reverse
way. Apollo rolls were made without pins,
whereas all other contemporary 58- and 65-note
rolls had pinned flanges. Cecilian music was
made with a long tracker bar provided with extra
size perforations at the bass end. Such players
had to have two tracker bars. Some Apollo
players were built in a form known as *' Apollo
Grand," having an octave coupler which throws

Repair of Player Mechanism. 327

in an extra octave of pneumatics at bass and treble
extremities.

In general it should be remembered that the
cabinet players, even more than the old 65-note
player pianos, were experimental. They there-
fore are found in vast variety of constructional
detail, but it may always safely be assumed that
their peculiarities are due rather to imperfect
grasp of fundamentals on the part of their makers
than to any excellences now unavailable or un-
used.

These brief hints and suggestions are given with
the idea of suggesting methods rather than at-
tempting to convey a definite answer to each pos-
sible definite problem. The latter task would be
endless.

In conclusion let me give a short list of ma-
terials and tools that the player repairer should
always carry with him.

Test Eoll

Vacuum pump for tracker bar

.Rubber tubing for tracker tubes

Hose (2 sizes) for main connections

Shellac in liquid form with bottle and brush

Glue (not fish glue)

328 Modern Piano Tuning.

Rubber cement
Kid (leather) for pouches
Eubber covered silk cloth for pouches
Rubber coated cotton cloth for pneumatics
Rubber cloth for pneumatics of motors
Special bellows cloth for bellows repairs
Raw-hide washers and strips for bearings of
pedals, bellows, connections, etc.

Miscellaneous threaded wires and buttons
Leather buttons

Miscellaneous valve buttons and stems, valve
seats, etc.

Other materials and tools will suggest them-
selves to the repairman as his needs and his expe-
rience alike grow.

A Last Word : It is not true that a good work-
man never quarrels with his tools ; though perhaps
a bad workman always does. A good workman
never quarrels with good tools; and always with
bad ones. Carlyle said, * * Genius is nothing but an
infinite capacity for taking pains." With these
significant words I may fitly bring this book to
an end.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

The Bibliography of the piano and of acoustics is ex-
tensive, but in the following list I have tried only to
give the names and particulars of a few modem books
useful to the student and easily accessible:

A(X)USTICS

Sensations of Tone, by H. L. F. Helmholtz, translated
with additions, and revised, by A. J. Ellis, F. R. S.,
London, Longmans Greene & Co., 3rd edition, 1895.

Sound and Music, by Rev. J. A. Zahm, Chicago, A. C.
MeClurg Co., 1892.

On Sound, by John Tyndall, F. R. S. 3rd edition, Lon-
don, 1875, and in various editions since. Pub-
lished in International Science Library by the Wer-
ner Co.

The Science of Musical Sounds, by D. C. Miller, D.Sc,
New York, Macmillan Co., 1916.

THE PIANO: HISTORICAL

History of the American Pianoforte, by Daniel Spil-
lane. New York, 1892.

History of the Pianoforte, by Edgar Brinsmead, Lon-
don, 1879.

329

330 Bibliographical Note.

Article, Pianoforte, by A. J. Hipkins, in Grove's Dic-
tionary of Music and Musicians, London and New
York, The MacMillan Co., 1910.

Article, Pianoforte, by A. J. Hipkins, Encyclopaedia
Brittanica, 9th and 11th editions.

Pianos and Their ]\Iakers, by Alfred Dolge, Covina Pub-
lishing Co., Covina, Cal., U. S. A., 1912.

THE PIANO: TECHNICAL

Theory and Practice of Pianoforte Building, by William
Braid White, New York, Edward Lyman Bill Inc.,
1906.

THE PUNO-PLATER: TECHNICAL

The Player-Piano Up-To-Date ; by William Braid White,
New York, Edward Lyman Bill Inc., 1914.

THE END

Index.

Accuracy, practical, 110

importance of, 111
Acoustics, meaning of, 1
Action of piano, 138, 184

centers, 196

center-pins, 196

detail variations, 198

felts, 197

functions, 185

general construction, 195

non-blockable, of Ammon,
216

springs, 197

turning-points, 194

woods used in, 196

English action, anticipated
by Cristofori, 191
of grand piano, 186

compared with square ac-
tion, 191

illustrated, 188

operation, 187

order of regulating, 204

regulation, 200

remedies for defects, 254
of upright piano, 209

compared with grand,
214

distinctive features, 210

detail variations, 215

lost motion attachments,
216

Action — con tinued
metal rails, 216
materials, 217
operation, 211
regulation, 218
remedies for defects, 253
of player, 284

bottom action, 285
no vacuum in, 317
plays hesitatingly, 318
top action, 298
(See also Back-check, Dam-
per, Key, Pneumatic
Valve and other names
of parts. )
"After-touch," 207
Agraffe, 176

Air, compression in soimdwave,
10
disturbance of balance, 269
expansion, 266
a gas, 266
pressure, 265, 282
rarefaction in sound-wave, 10
■weight, 265, 282
Air-pump, 11
Amplification by sound board,

168
Amplitude of vibrations, 12
Angelus player, 290, 326
Apollo player, 302, 303

cabinet, 307, 326
Arezzo, Guido d', mediaeval
musician, 19 footnote

331

332

Index.

Atmosphere necessary to sound,

11
Audibility, range of, 16
"Automatic player," 305
Auto-pneumatic Action Co.,

their player, 287, 290,

291, 304

Bach, J. S., composer, 20
Back of piano, 133, 134, 173
Back-check on grand piano,
191
regulation of, 206
on upright, 219
Bass strings, 180
winding for, 180
tuning, 126
defects of, 250
Battallia, L., piano maker, 216
Bauer, Wm., piano maker, 173
Bearing of strings, 116
"Bearings" in tuning, 92, 108
Beats in simultaneous sounds,
60, 67
counting, 105
false, 125
frequency of, 67
how arising, 67
in equal tempered intervals,

86
use of, 69
Beat-rate, increase in, 90'

in Thirds and Sixths, 104
Beat- system, 84
Beat-tones, 97 footnote
Bellows of player, 264
cloth for, 322
functions of, 264

Bellows — continued

exhauster units, 269, 286

equalizer, 269, 286

flap-valves of, 271

operation of equalizers, 274

of exhausters, 270

repairs on, 322

springs of, 286

varied types of, 276
Bellows-system, 286
Bleed-hole, see Vent
Boys, experiment with five, 80
Brambach Piano Co., their

grand piano, 177
Bridge on sound-board, 118, 176

cutting of, 177

defects in, 251
Bridle tape of upright piano
action, 214, 219, 253

Cable Company, their player,
290, 297, 303

Case-work of upright piano,
described, 141

Cecilian player, old 65-note
style, 325, 326

Center-pins of piano action, 196
material of, 197

Chase, A. B. Co., their player,
290

Christman Piano Co., piano ac-
tion, 216

"Ciphering" in player, 312

"Circle of Fifths" in tuning, 91
and of Fourths, 91

Clark, M., player inventor, eee
Aj>oUo

Index.

333

Clavichord, stringed instrument,
keyboard of, 73 footnote

Comma, interval, 33

Condensation of sound-pulse, 61

Conover Bros., piano makers,
216

"Crash-bellows" in player, 287

Cristofori, B., inventor of piano,
150
his back-check, 192
his hammer, 223

Curve of sines, 7

Damper, of grand piano, 194

regtilation of, 208

of upright piano, 220
"Delicacy of ear" defined, 128
DiflFerence of one vibration, 65

Ellis, A, J., F.R.S., translator

of Helmholtz, 35, 82

footnote, 94
history of musical pitch, 19
"Electric player," see Automatic

Player
Equalizer in players, 274

operation of, 275
Erard, P. S., piano maker, 184,

186
Erard piano, 195
Errors, accumulation of, 112,

127
Expression in player-pianos, 264
Expression governor in player,

290
description of, 291

Expression governor — continued
operation of, 293
regulation of, 319

Faber, N., organ maker, 73 foot-
note
Felt for piano hammers, 226

nature of, 227

See also Hammer-Felt
Fifth, musical interval, 21

ratio of, 22
Fourier, J. B., mathematician,
52, footnote

his theories, 52
Frequency of vibration, 15

Galton, Sir F., anthropometrist,
18, footnote

Galton whistle, 18, footnote

Gate-box, see Tempo-box.

Goetschius, Dr. Percy, musical
theorist, 24, footnote

Graphite, use of, 314

Grove's Dictionary, musical en-
cyclopaedia, 84

Gulbransen, A. G., player in-
ventor, his player, 290,
299, 302, 303

Hagaman, Dr., inventor, 94,

footnote
Hammer of piano, 137

contact with string, 55

description of, 224

334

Index.

Hammer — continued

development of, in U. S. A.,

226
felt for, 227
"filing" of, 234
functions, 224
light vs. heavy, 232
material for, 225

tonal properties of, 228
voicing of, see Voicing
Hammer-blow on upright piano,

218
"Hammer-felt" of piano, 226
under-felt, 230
top-felt, 230
soft and hard, 231
condition prior to voicing, 233
(See also Hammer and Felt.)
"Hammer-rail-lift" on player
pianos, 295
floating type, 296
Harpsichord, ancestor of piano,
223
nature of its tone, 223
Helmholtz, H. L. F., Acousti-
cian, 17 footnote, 19, 35,
82 footnotes, 94, 97, foot-
note
Hipkins, A. J., musical techni-
cian, 73, 151, footnotes
"History of the American
Pianoforte," historical
work, 187 footnote, 329
Hydraulikon, ancient instru-
ment, 73, footnote

Impulses, composition of, 164
Interference of eoimd, 67

Intervals of musical scale, ad-
vice to tune pure, 96,
122
used for tests, 126
wide and narrow in equal
temperament, 89
Intonation in music, impracti-
cability of pure, 31
Just intonation, 94
Intonations, comparison of, 79

study of, 93
Ivory, polishing of, 257
repair of, 257

Jack of grand piano action, 206
of upright piano action, 219

Key of piano action, of grand
piano, 202
regulation in grand, 204
of upright piano, 218
remedies for defects in, 254
Key-board, influence of, 73
Key-pliers, use of, 204
Kimball, W. W. Co., piano
makers, their player, 301
Koenig, Dr. R., Acoustician, 18,

97, footnote
Kranich & Bach, piano makers,
their soft pedal, 200

Leakage in pneumatic player
action, 311
results of, 312
precautions against, 313

Index.

335

Leakage — continued

in valve boards, 321
Lecky, Jas., musical theorist,

84, footnote
Left hand in tuning, 121
for grand pianos, 122
Lost motion in upright piano
action, 219

Materials for player repairing,
327
(See also under Felt, Piano,
Player, etc.)
Mayer, Prof. A. M., Acoustician,

61
Method, note on, 92
Metronome for coimting beats,

107, footnote
Miller, J. C, Acoustician and
Tuner, researches of, 69
his tables, 88
Monochord, analogy of, 159
Motion, harmonic, 49

resultant, 49
Motor of player, 276
adjusting speed of, 314
adjusting valves of, 315
cloth for, 322
old, reclothing, 321
operation of, 276
parts of, 276
speed of, 314
transmission of, 301
troubles of, 314
various types of, 301
Motor governor of player ac-
tion, 278
adjustment of, 289

Motor governor — continued
description of, 288
operation of, 280

Muffler of piano, 141

Mutty, L. J. Co., player supply
makers, their cloth
gages, 322, 323

Music Trade Review, piano
trade journal, 88

Music Trades Review, London,
piano trade journal, 88

Musical instruments, their im-
perfect tuning, 33

Mute, 125

Muting of strings, 123

Needham cabinet player, 308

Nodes, in string vibration, 48,
65

Noises, 3, 4

Notation, acoustical, 29, foot-
note

Octave, musical interval, 21
in equal temperament, 76
tuning of, 98
Organ, intonation of in equal

temperament, 81
Oscillation or semi-vibration,

15
Overstringing in bass of piano,
132

Partials in string vibration, up-
per, 16

336

Index.

Partials — continued
influence of, 54
coincident, 67
series from C, = 64, 53
series of, 54
Patches, in player repairing,

320
Pedals of piano, 139
sustaining, 140
"loud," 140
soft, 140
sostenuto, 140, 200

regulation of, 209
soft of grand, 199
Kranich & Bach soft, 200
of upright piano, 217
of upright soft, 217
of upright damper, 217
of upright middle, 217
regulation of damper pedal,
220
of soft pedal, 220
of middle pedal, 220
of player piano, 270
Penduliun for counting beats,
106
experiment with, 164
Pendulum-clock, 106
Perforated sheet or music roll,

265, 273
Perforations, marginal, in

sheet, 303
Phase, in Acoustic phenomena,
identity of, 64
difference of, 64
Piano or pianoforte, as acous-
tical instrument, 38,
footnote
action of, see Action
case-work on upright, 141

Piano — continued

development of, 150

finish of, 149

grand, illustrated, 147

highest sound of, 17

illustrations of, 143, 144, 146,
147

iron plate of, 133
defects of, 250

keys of, see Keys

lowest sound of, 16

materials of, 148

a percussion instrument, 131

polish of, 149

range of modern, 18

strings of, see Strings

soundboard of, see Sound-
board

in theatres, 125

tone of, see Tone

tone-emission, apparatus of,
(see Tone Emission Ap-
paratus )

upright, names of parts, 141,
142, 143, 144, 145, 146

varnish of, 149

wire of, see Wire

wrest plank of, 117, 133

square, see Square
"Pianoforte," article in Ency-
clopaedia Britannica, 187
Pin-block of piano, see Piano,

Wrest plank of
Pipes, musical, vibration of, 54
Pitch of sound, 14

lowering of, 124

raising of, 124

imiform, 125
Player-piano, 284

description of, 285

Index.

337

Player — continued

lacks power, 317

maintenance of, 311

old, 324

repair of old, 324
Player, cabinet or exterior, 284,
307

action of, 308

bellows of, 307

expression in, 308

motor of, 308

repair of, 326
Player-Piano Up to date, book,

326
"Pneumatic," power unit of
player mechanism, 270

ciphering, 318

cloth for, 322

collapse of, 273

cracks in, 321

repetition of, 274, 317

silent, 319
"Pneumatics" science, 201

need of instruction in, 262

summary of facts in, 282
Pneumatic playing mechanism
of player-piano

functions of, 264

operation of, 269

regulation of, 320

repair of, 310
Pneumatic power, source of,

265
Pneumatic stack of player
mechanisms, 298

assembly of, 299
Polishing, 149, 256
Position in tuning, 123
Pouches of player mechanism,
323

Pouches — continued
leather for, 323
repairing of, 323
"Pounding" in tuning, 123
Practice by student in tuning,

100
Pressure of atmosphere, 265
effective, for player, 282
on valve, 272, 274
Price & Teeple Piano Co., their

player, 290
Purity in timing, measure of,

97
Pythagoras, Greek physicist, 20

Range of musical sounds, 18
Ratio, chromatic, 33
(also see Interval)
Reduced pressure chamber of

player mechanism, 272
Refinishing of case-work, 256
Reflection of vibratory motion,

49
Reisig, Aug., Acoustician, 107,

footnote
Repetition of piano action, 184
double, 184
of player action, 317
adjustment of, in player, 317
Replacement of parts on player

piano, 320
Re-roll in player piano, 297
Reservoir of player, see Equal-
izer
Resonance of sound, 66
in piano, 161
sympathetic, 40
Re-wind, see Re-roll

338

Index.

Saw, noise of, 7
Scale, in music, 20

chromatic tempered, 19

diatonic, 20, 22, 24

equal tempered, 75

equal tempered on piano, 76

minor, 79, footnote

natural, 22

relations of degrees of, 25
"Scale" in piano making, 131
Schwander piano action, for
grand, 198

for upright, 216
Screws, overdrawn, 324
Semitone, chromatic, 32
"Sensations of Tone," book, 17,

97, footnotos
Shellac, use of, 313

for leaks, 321
Silencer in player-piano, 297
Simplex cabinet player, 308
"Sixty-five note" players, 306
Slide valve in player, squeaky,

323
Soft expression { see Expression-
governor)
Soft-pedal, pneumatic, in play-
er-piano, 295
Sound, science of, 4

as sensation, 4

loudness of, 12

mechanics of, 5

musical, 9

pitch of, 14

quality of, 54

transmission of, 9

vibration of, 9

"what is sound," 2

Sounds, extremes of musical, 16
highest on piano, 17
lowest on piano, 16
lowest audible, 16
musical, 3

properties of musical, 11
Sound-board of piano, 134
bridges of, 136, 176
character of, 152
crown of, 135
defects of, 251
dimensions of, 174
influence of back on, 170, 173
influence of plate on, 170,

171
as resonance instrument,

161
use of, 135
ribbing of, 175
tone coloration by, 168
vibration, period of, 170
proper of, 169
of, shown, 157
as vibrator, 135, 160
with strings, one structure,
153
Spillane, D., musical historian,

187
Spool-box in player-piano, 302,
Springs in piano action, 198
in player action, treatment
of, 323
Square style of piano, 244
is obsolete, 244
old English action of, 259
repairs on, 257
Staib-Abendschein Co., New
York, their Mastertouch
piano action, 216
Standard Pneumatic Action

Index.

339

Co., New York, their
player, 287
Steinway & Sons, New York,
piano makers, 198

their grand action, 198
Strauch Brothers, New York,
piano action makers, 199

their grand piano action, 199
"Striking distance" of hammer,

56, 179
String, musical, 36

definition of, 36

division of, 42

experiment on, 46

length of, 43

pitch of, 43

thickness of, 43

tension of, 43

variable factors in, 45

vibration, simultaneous, of,
59

weight of, 43

why it subdivides, 45
Strings, of piano, bass, 132

defects of remedied, 249

description of, 116

dimensions of, 178

false, 249

functions of, 177

gauges of, 178

hang on bridge, 122

material of, 57

proportions of, 132

striking point of, 179

struck, 156

tension of, 58, 133

tones of, 38

winding of, in bass, 180
String polisher, tool, 249
"Style" in tuning, 127

Sustaining pedal, pneumatic, in
player, 294
troubles of, 319

Technicians, conference of, 182,

footnote
Temperament in tuning, mean-
ing of, 74
necessity for, 34
use of word, 73
Temperament, equal, system of
tuning, 70, 74
advantages of, 80
a compromise, 95
definition of, 75
disadvantages of, 80
octave rates, 75
semitone ratio, 75
Temperament, meantone, sya-

tem of tuning, 82
Tempo or speed, in player piano,
280
control of, 280
valve for, 281
Tension of piano strings, 58
Tests in tuning, method of. 111
of octave, 102
by thirds and sixths, 103
by tenths, 104
Test-roll for player-piano, 314
"Theory and Practice of Piano-
forte Building," Book, re-
ferred to or mentioned in
footnotes, 35, 45, 82, 130,
134, 135, 171, 175, 178,
183, 187
Tliompson, General Perronet,
musical theorist, 82,
footnote

340

Index.

Time, unit of, 15
Tone, quality of musical sounds,
acoustical definition for
piano, 155
the ideal, 241
of piano, 154
of piano is compound, 39
of string, 38
Tone color, meaning of, 156
Tone coloration by sound board,

168
Tone-emission, apparatus of, for
piano, 153
definition of, 154
Tonometer of Koenig, 19
Tone regulation, see Voicing
Tools for player work, 327
for regulating, 221
care of, 259

for tuning, 119, 123, 125
for voicing, 234, 237, 240,
243
Touch in piano action, 137
after touch, 207
control of, 155, 156
depth of, 201
regulation on grand, 201
regulation on upright, 220
Tracker-bar of player piano,

300, 302
Tracking-device of player-piano,

303
Trapwork in piano action
(pedals), 139
defects in, 255
Treadles of player piano, 286
Treble, tuning of, 127
Tubes in player piano, leaky,
324
metal, 324

Tubes — continued
old rubber, 324
Tuning of piano, basis of, 34
of unisons, 98
of octaves, 101
of treble, 127
solid, 120

(see also Temperament, Oc-
tave, Unison, etc.)
Tuning-fork, pitch measuring
instrument, its sound, 5
vibrations of, 6, 38
Tuning hammer, tool for tun-
ing, 119
length of, 121
manipulation of, 119
position of, 121
Tuning-pin in piano making,
114, 118
bending of, 120
turning of, 120, 244
sleeve for, 244
Tyndall, Professor, Acoustician,
9

Unison, in music, 20
tuning of, 98

Vacuum, in pneiunatics, defini-
tion of, 272
partial, 272

in reduced pressure chamber,
273
Valve, in player-piano mechan-
ism, 272
of motor, 315

Index.

341

Valve — continued
operation of, 273
pouch of, 270, 273
pouch defective, 317
primary, 299
secondary, 299
sticking of, 313
travel of, 318
Varnish for pianos, 149

defects and remedies, 255
Vent, of player piano mechan-
ism, 269, 271, 297, 298,
316, 318
Ventral segments, in acoustics,

49
Vibration, in acoustics, com-
plex, 41
double, 15

laws of frequency, 44
semi, 15
simple, 37
simultaneous, 59
Voicer, in piano making, his
qualifications, 241
as critic, 241
Voicing, process of treating
piano hammers, etc., 59
■process of, 233
crown stitch, 241
"the dead tone," 240
deep stitches, 239
filing, 234
ironing, 240

Voicing — continued
needling, 236
needle holder, 237
"picking up," 238
problem of, 232
prior condition of felt, 233
sand paper file, 234
smoothing, 234
technique of filing, 235

of needling, 237
trimming the crown, 239

Wave-length in acoustics, 63
Welding for plate repairs, 251
Wessell, Nickel & Gross, piano
action makers, 189, 199,
210, 215
Wilcox & White Co., see Ange-

lus
Wire for piano strings, 57
density of, 58
gauge of, 179
high tension, 179
Womum, R., piano maker, 184
Wrest plank in piano, see Piano
defects of, 247

Zahm, Rev. J. A., Acoustician,
82, 97, footnotes

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Full text of "Modern piano tuning and allied arts : including principles and practice of piano tuning, regulation of piano action, repair of the piano, elementary principles of player-piano pneumatics, general construction of player mechanisms, and repair of player mechanism"

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